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^
One thousand six hundred and fifty
copies of this edition were print-
ed in June^ nineteen hundred and
nine, of which this is numbered
fff
PLAN OF CHICAGO
-■.^■'^^-^--
, CHICAGO. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW, SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE CITY ON THE SHORES OF LAKE MICHIGAN. TOGETHER
WITH THE SMALLER SURROUNBING TOWNS CONNECTED WITH CHICAGO BY RADIATING ARTERIES.
Painled tor the Commercial Club by Jules Guerin.
PLAN OF
HIC AGO
•" -»
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB
DURING THE YEARS MCMVI, MCMVII, AND MCMVIII
'■: . -■
BY
DANIEL H. BURNHAM
AND
EDWARD H. BENNETT
ARCHITECTS
EDITED BY
CHARLES MOORE
CORRESPONDING MEMBER AMERICAN INSTITUTB OP ARCHITECTS
CHICAGO
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB
MCMIX
Architectural
mil
C73l
Copyright, 1908
BY
COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO
CONTENTS
3312
CHAPTER I
ORIGIN OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO
The tendenqr towards city life
Problems of the great city ....
Necessity for city-planning ....
Economy and efl&ciency promoted by a city-plan
Elements of a comprehensive plan
Influence of the World's Columbian Exposition on city-planning in the United States
The success of the Exposition due to competent direction and loyalty to Chicago
Improvement of the Lake front proposed by the South Park Commissioners
Expansion of the South Parks system
The Commercial Club undertakes a plan of Chicago
Progress of the work .....
Scope of the undertaking ....
An ideal arrangement proposed
The Spirit of Chicago
I
I
2
2
4
4
4
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
CHAPTER II
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES
Commerce, the leading motive in the building of cities
Semiramis, the first city-builder
The building of Babylon
The pyramids and temples of Egypt
The work of Pericles at Athens
The development of Rome
City-building during the Middle Ages
Rise of the city during the Renaissance
Origin and growth of Paris
Paris built according to a definite plan
Louis XIV. and his city-builders
Napoleon Bonaparte begins the transformation of Paris
Haussmann completes the transformation of Paris
City-planning in Europe since 1872 .
The influence of European peace on city-building
City-planning in Germany
The creation of new thoroughfares in London .
.Town-planning in England .....
The L'Enfant plan of Washington
The United States Senate Park Commission plan for Washington
vn
9
10
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14
IS
15
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23
25
o
Vlll
CONTENTS
The Cleveland group-plan . ...
The Boston park system .....
City-planning in Baltimore, St. Louis and San Francisco
Plans for Manila, and for a summer-capital at Baguio .
Improvements in various American cities
27
27
28
28
28
CHAPTER III
CHICAGO, THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST
The Old North- West Territory
Reasons for expecting continuous growth in the Middle West
Increase in the population of Chicago
Recovery after the great fire of 187 1
Chicago's population fifty years hence
Attractions of city life
The suburbs of Chicago
Real-estate speculation subversive of good planning .
The development of the suburb ....
Dependence of the suburb on the municipality .
Highways along Lake Michigan ....
A system of highways for the territory within sixty miles of Chicago
Suburban transit facilities .....
The advantages of good roads ....
Four sets of encircling highways proposed
Highways parallel to railroads ....
Suburban travel needs more comfortable conditions .
The influence of the electric-railway and the automobile on suburban life
31
31
32
32
33
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
39
39
40
41
41
42
CHAPTER IV
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM
The motto of Chicago
Beginnings of the Chicago Park system
The Chicago boulevards
Park legislation ....
The smaU parks of Chicago
A metropolitan park system proposed
The Special Park Commission.
London's larger parks
The pleasures of Henley
The great parks of Paris and Vienna
Boston park reservations.
The park system of the District of Columbia
The possibility of a comprehensive park system for Chicago
Treatment of the Chicago Lake front
A system of lagoons and lake parkways proposed
The acquisition and improvements of forest spaces
Physical characteristics of the country surrounding Chicago
An encircling system of forest parks. ....
43
43
44
44
44
44
44
48
48
49
49
49
49
50
SO
53-
55
57
CONTENTS
IX
CHAPTER V
TRANSPORTATION
Chicago the creation of its raihroads ....
Present problems in transportation ....
Congestion of railway trafl&c in 1906-07 ....
The necessity for improved terminals ....
A freight center proposed for Chicago -, ■ .
Advantages of such an arrangement ....
Railroad and water traffic compared ....
A loop-system for handling freight traffic
Harbor freight and passenger connections
The location of passenger stations on Twelfth and Canal streets
Terminal stations
The traction systems
Comfort an object in passenger transportation .
A perfect passenger and freight handling machine
The handling of the mails
The suburban station
The necessity for, and advantages of, harmonious action among the Chicago railroads
CHAPTER VI
STREETS WITHIN THE CITY
The dominant natural features of Chicago
The need of new and enlarged channels of circulation
Causes of the growth of cities ....
Cleanliness the first consideration for city streets
Residence streets
The Avenue, or traffic-street
The Boulevard
Street architecture .
Traffic interruptions
The elliptical avenue
The planning of new subdivisions
The necessity for diagonal streets
Proposed new circuits
Improvement of the Chicago River
CHAPTER Vn
THE HEART OF CHICAGO
Opportunity for creating a unified and convenient city
The problem of overcoming congestion in the business-center
Solution of the problem simple and natural
Michigan Avenue: its importance in the city plan
The proposed improvement of Michigan Avenue
An elevated roadway
Bridges over the river
Improvement of Halsted Street
Slums of Chicago .....
The slum represents the failure of the city to protect its people
61
61
62
63
63
63
64
66
68
70
70
73
74
76
76
78
78
79
80
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84
86
88
90
91
93
95
97
99
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102
103
105
106
106
CONTENTS
The Financial Quarter
Grant Park as a spacious and attractive public garden
Location of the Field Museum, the Crerar Library and the Art Institute
A Center of Letters ....
A yacht harbor
Art as a source of wealth ....
Public gifts by citizens ....
The opportunity ofiEered for effective treatment of Chicago River banks
The need of a main axis for Chicago
Such an axis would give organic unity to the city
Congress Street as the grand axis
A Civic Center
Buildings to be comprised in the civic center
Architectural treatment of the proposed buildings
The landscape setting
Effectiveness depends on harmony and good order
The civic center gives coherence to the city plan
Great advantages which will result from the treatment proposed
CHAPTER VIII
PLAN OF CHICAGO
The Plan a result of systematic study
The cost involved in carr3ring out the work ....
Wealth created by the growth of population ....
The people are financially able to realize the Plan
Three great public works undertaken by Chicago
The public spirit of Chicago as shown in music, art and education
Gifts for the public good
Reasons for believing that the public will favor the Plan of Chicago
The Plan both practical and beautiful
The advantages to be derived from systematic development of Chicago
Elements of the Plan reviewed
Improvement of the Lake front an economic necessity
Ease of realizing the inter-urban highway system
The transportation problem to be worked out by the railroads
Additional parks necessary to the physical and mental well-being of the people
The attractive city a source of both wealth and satisfaction
APPENDIX
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO
Introductory ....
Outer parks, boulevards, and circuits .
City parks, squares, boulevards, and avenues
Lake shore development ....
Transportation problems
Control of lands adjacent to public improvements
Congested areas .....
Present borrowing and taxing powers .
Conclusions ......
INDEX
107
108
108
108
109
no
no
no
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"3
"3
"5
"5
116
116
117
117
118
119
119
119
120
120
120
121
121
121
121
121
122
122
122
123
124
127
130
^33
137
139
139
151
151
154
IS7
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Peter (Fourth Century), and
the present
Bird's-eye view, showing the location of Chicago on the shores of Lake Michigan, together with the surround-
ing towns connected with the city by radiating arteries FrotUispiecc
Wood-cut of Chicago in 1834
The World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893
The Court of Honor, showing effect of a uniform cornice line
Plan showing orderly arrangement of buildings
The Lake Front Park, original plan, 1896
Modified plan, 1904 ... ....
The World's Columbian Exposition; view of the Court of Honor, looking west
The Pyramids at Gizeh .......
The Acropolis at Athens
The Greek Theatre at S)rracuse, Sicily
Plan showing Nero's Circus at Rome (First Century), Basilica of St
Cathedral of St. Peter (Sixteenth Century)
An ancient Roman circus, near the Appian Way .
The Ponte Molle, Rome
Transformation of the banks of the Seine in Paris
Chronological views of the Place de la Bastile, Paris
The transformation of Paris under Haussmann : plan showing the portion executed from 1854 to 1889
Paris. Plan proposed by M. Eugene H^nard for additional radial arteries and an inner circuit boulevard
on which would front the principal existing administrative buildings and many public monuments .
Vienna. City center, in 1857, showing the fortifications
City center, after transformations made by order of Francis Joseph in 1857
London. Plan of Aldwych and Kingsway OHmecting Holbom and the Strand
London Traffic Commission's plan for new thoroughfares to overcome congestion, 1907
Original plan of Washington designed by Peter Charles L'Enfant, 1791
The L'Enfant plan of Washington as developed by the Senate Park Conmiission of 1901
The Washington Monument, garden, and Mall, looking towards the Capitol ; Senate Park
The Plaza and Union Station, Washington, begun in 1902
Geveland. Group-Plan
View from the civic center to the Lake
Plan for the development of the entire dty of San Francisco .
Bird's-eye view of the plan of development for San Francisco
Plans for the development of Manila, submitted to the Philippine Commission by D
Plan for a summer capital of the Philippine Islands, at Baguio
Florence, Italy. Silhouette of towers 30
Chicago. Diagram of location with regard to the seven central States 31
Chicago, and diagram of Lake Michigan 33
Nancy, France. View of the Place Stanislas 35
Forest of Fontainebleau, France 36
Chicago. The Sheridan Road north of Glencoe 37
The DesPlaines River; view near Madison Street bridge 40
General diagram of exterior highways encircling, or radiating from, the city .... 40
The shore of Lake Michigan; view at the north line of Cook County 41
View of Lake Zurich, Illinois 42
Commission plan
. H. Burnham, 1905
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
10
II
12
12
14
IS
16
17
19
19
20
20
22
23
24
24
2S
25
26
26
27
28
XI
xu
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chicago, ^^nter view of Grant Park and the proposed harbor, looking east
General map showing topography, waterways, and complete system of streets, boulevards, park-
ways, and parks
Berlin. Block plan showing the park system and proposed forest reserves
Vienna. Block plan showing the park system and existing forest reserves
District of Columbia. Block plan showing the park system and additions
London. A view of Rotten Row in Hyde Park
Chicago. View of the dty from Jackson Park to Grant Park, looking towards the west .
Park development proposed for the Lake shore from Jackson Park to \^lmette
View of the proposed park on the south shore, looking northwest towards the dty
View looking south over the lagoons of the proposed park for the south shore .
Section through the park proposed for the south shore
The Midway Plaisance, showing the proposed waterway connecting the lagoons of Washington
Park with those of Jackson Park
Typical view across the proposed south shore park
England. Henley-on-Thames: the regatta course
Henley-on-Thames: a regatta
Versailles, France. Plan of the palace, park, and gardens, and the great arteries leading to the gates
View from the terrace, looking down the main axis ....
Paris. View of the Sunken Garden in the Luxembourg Gardens
St. Germain, France. View of an avenue in the forest and roimd-point ....
Chicago. Plan of a park proposed on the main east-and-west axis of the dty at Congress Street and Fifty
second Avenue
Plan of a park proposed at Western Boulevard and Garfield Boulevard, being an extension of
Gag^ Park
Plan of a park proposed at the north branch of the Chicago River and Graceland Avenue
Plan of Sherman playground and park
Mark White Square
Hamilton Park
Sherman Park; view of field house
Sherman Park; view of swimming pool
Diagram of a system of freight handling for land and water transportation
Assembling-interchange; diagrams accompanying the report of the committee
Sketch diagram of docks sugg^ed at the mouth of the Chicago River
Sketch diagram of docks suggested at the mouth of the Calumet River
Diagram of the dty and surrounding country, showing railroad circuits
Diagram of the dty center, showing the general location of existing freight yards and railroad
lines, the present tunnel system and proposed drcuit, and connections for all these services,'
nmning to the central dearing yards
Diagram of the dty, showing complete system of inner drcuits
^Viaduct and Railway station (Hauptbahn-hof) passing above the normal street level
A railway viaduct passing over an important street
Suggested arrangement of passenger stations west of the river. Subway scheme
Suggested arrangement of passenger stations west of the river. Overhead scheme
Diagram of dty center, showing the proposed arrangement of railroad passenger stations, the
complete traction system, induding rapid transit, subway, and elevated roads, and the circuit
subway line
Railroad rights-of-way a^^d properties in the center of dty and the existing radial arteries .
. Diagram of general scheme of street circulation and parks in relation to the areas covered by indus-
tries and manufactures
Viaduct at Auteuil over the River Seine, Paris, France
Dresden.
Vienna.
Chicago.
43
44
45
46
47
48
48
48
48
48
48
SI
S2
S3
S3
S4
55
55
S5
S6
S7
S7
S8
S9
S9
60
60
61
63
64
6S
67
69
70
71
71
72
73
7S
76
77
78
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
xin
Chicago. The center of the city looking west, showing Grant Park, the harbor, and the civic center
Plan of a complete system of street circulation and system of parks and playgrounds
Plan of the street and boulevard S3rstem present and proposed ....
View looking west over the dty, showing the proposed civic center, the grand axis. Grant Park, and
the harbor
Map showing the successive city limits
Diagram of general scheme of street circulation and parks in relation to the population
Theoretical diagram of street circulation
Existing and proposed diagonal arteries
Paris. The Avenue du Bois de Boulogne, looking towards the Arc de Triomphe
The Tuileries Gardens and Champs £lyse^s
The Champs £l3rse^ from the Place de la Concorde
View from the Arc de Triomphe along the Avenue du Bois de Boulogne
System of traffic circulation proposed by M. H^nard for public places
Theoretical diagram of the streets of Paris .
Theoretical diagram of the streets of Moscow
Theoretical diagram of the streets of Berlin .
Theoretical diagram of the streets of London
Chicago. View of Grand Boulevard .
View of the Lake Shore Drive
Plan of the dty, showing the general system of boulevards and parks existing and proposed
View of Drexel Boulevard
View of Michigan Avenue, looking north
Intersection of the three branches of the Chicago River
View looking north on the south branch of the Chicago River
View of the south shore looking southeast over Grant Park
The proposed plaza on Michigan Avenue
Plan of the complete system of street circulati(m ; railway stations; parks ; boulevard circuits and
radial arteries; public recreation piers; yacht harbor, and pleasure boat piers; treatment of
Grant Park; the main axis and the dvic center
Plan of the center of the city, showing the present and proposed street and boulevard sjrstem
Proposed boulevard to connect the north and south sides of the river ....
Plan of Michigan Avenue from Twelfth Street to the river, and its extension on Pine Street to
Chicago Avenue
Proposed boulevard and parkway on Michigan Avenue and Pine Street
Proposed boulevard on Michigan Avenue; view looking north from a point east of the Public
Library ...........
View of Pine Street
Paris. View of the Rue de la Paix and the Column Venddme ....
Chicago. Michigan Avenue, looking towards the south .....
Sketch plan of the intersection of Michigan Avenue and Twelfth Street .
Preliminary sketch of the plaza at Michigan Avenue and Twelfth Street .
Proposed Twelfth Street boulevard at intersections with Michigan Avenue and Ashland Avenue
Railway station scheme west of the river between Canal and Clinton streets
Alternate railway station scheme west of the river between Canal and Clinton streets
Plan of Grant Park and the harbor
Elevation of Grant Park and harbor and the eastern facade of the dty on Michigan Avenue
Section looking north, taken through the proposed grand axis of the dty
Bird's-eye view at night of Grant Park
Proposed plaza on Michigan Avenue west of the Field Museum of Natural History .
The business center of the dty, within the first drcuit boulevard
79
80
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80
81
8a
83
8S
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108
109
no
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i ^Lu i wiiMjmnHaiiiiiH BHIi*» Bt!S *
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chicago. Plan of the proposed group of municipal buildings or civic center . . 112
Elevation showing the group of buildings constituting the proposed civic center 112
View, looking west, of the proposed civic center plaza and buildings 112
Paris. The Place de la Concorde, looking over the Seine towards the Madeleine 113
Dresden. The Zwingerhof 113
Vienna. The Ringstrasse 114
Rome. St. Peter's Cathedral 114
Chicago. View of the proposed development in the center of the city, from Twenty-second Street to Chicago
Avenue, looking towards the east . 114
Berlin. Spree Island 115
Chicago. The proposed civic center square 116
Study for the dome of the proposed civic center 118
View eastward to Lake Michigan 119
"The Great Lakes" 124
The drawings for the Plan of Chicago were executed by Ben E. Holden, Clarence E. Howard, Chester M. Davi-
son, Chris U. Bagge, and Leo Strelka. Mr. Holden was identified with the study of the general plan and the
park S3rstem, both in general and in detail; Mr. Howard with the Center of the City and the Railroads; and Mr.
Davison with the treatment of the Lake Front. The plans for the Civic Center and for Grant Park were studied by
Femand Janin of Paris, who came to Chicago in 1908 for that especial purpose. The renderings by Jules Guerin
were made during extended visits to Chicago in 1907, and again in 1908. The work of both Mr. Guerin and Mr.
Janin appears over their names. The Sanitary District Map of the City of Chicago has been jised in compiling the
plan drawings. Plate XVII is compiled from plans published in *' Les Transformations de Paris."
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO
Organized 1877; United with the Merchants Club, 1907.
THE MERCHANTS CLUB COMMITTEE ON THE PLAN OF CHICAGO, 1906-7. Charles D. Norton,
Chairman; Charles H. Wacker, Vice-Chairman; David R. Forgan, Treasurer; Walter H. Wilson, Chairman
Finance CammiUee; Edward B. Butler, Frederic A. Delano; Daniel H. Bumham, Architect.
THE COMMERCIAL CLUB COMMITTEES ON THE PLAN OF CHICAGO, 1907-08.
General Committee. Charles D. Norton, Chairman; Charles H. Wacker, Vice-Chairman; Frederic
A. Delano, Secretary; Walter H. Wilson, Treasurer; Adolphus C. Bartlett, Edward B. Butler, Clyde M.
Carr, John V. Farwell, Jr., Joy Morton, Charles H. Thome; Daniel H. Bumham, Architect.
On Lake Front. Edward B. Butler, Chairman; Leslie Carter, Charles G. Dawes, John V. Farwell,
Jr., Victor F. Lawson, Harold F. McCormick.
On Boulevard to Connect the North and South Sides. Clyde M. Carr, Chairman; Charles H. Con-
over, James L. Houghteling, Albert A. Sprague II., Charles H. Thome, Frederic W. Upham, Charles
H. Wacker.
On Railway Terminals. Joy Morton, Chairman; Adolphus C. Bartlett, William J. Chalmers, Charles H.
Hulburd, Chauncey Keep, Franklin MacVeagh, Cyrus H. McCormick, Martin A. Ryerson, John G.
Shedd, Albert A. Sprague.
THE COMMERCLVL CLUB COMMITTEES ON THE PLAN OF CHICAGO, 1908-9.
General Committee. Charles D. Norton, Chairman; Charles H. Wacker, Vice-Chairman; Frederic
A. Delano, Secretary; Walter H. Wilson, Treasurer; Adolphus C. Bartlett, Edward B. Butler, Clyde M. Carr,
John V. Farwell, Charles L. Hutchinson, RoUin A. Keyes, Joy Morton, Charles H. Thome; Daniel H.
Bumham, Architect.
On Lake Parks. Edward B. Butler, Chairman; Edgar A. Bancroft, William L. Brown, Charles G.
Dawes, John V. Farwell, Harold F. McCormick, John J. Mitchell.
On Streets and Boulevards. Clyde M. Carr, Chairman; Charles H. Conover, Thomas E. Donnelley,
James L. Houghteling, Albert A. Sprague II., Frederic W. Upham, Charles H. Wacker.
On Railway Terminals. Joy Morton, Chairman; Adolphus C. Bartlett, Franklin MacVeagh, Cyrus
H. McCormick, Martin A. Ryerson, John G. Shedd, Albert A. Sprague.
On Interurban Roadways. Charles H. Thome, Chairman; Benjamin Carpenter, Edward F. Carry,
Homer A. Stillwell, Charles L. Strobel.
On Finance. Adolphus C. Bartlett, Chairman; Charles G. Dawes, Charles L. Hutchinson, Albert A.
Sprague, Walter H. Wilson.
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
PRIOR TO JUNE 1, 1909
Adams, George £.
Aldis, Arthur T.
Aldis, Owen F.
Alexander, William A.
Allen, Benjamin
Alvord, John W.
American Radiator Company
Armour, J. Ogden
Armstrong, Frank H.
Arnold, Bion J.
Ayer, Edward E.
Bailey, Edward P.
Baker, Alfred L.
Baker, Howard W.
Bancroft, Edgar A.
Banks, Alexander F.
Barber, Bryant H.
Barnes, Albert R.
Bambart, Kenneth
Bartlett, Adolphus C.
Bartlett, Charles L.
Barton, Enos M.
Bates, Onward
Becker, Abraham G.
Beidler, Francis
Beifeld, Joseph
Bigelow Brothers & Walker Com-
pany
Billings, Frank
Birk, WiUiam A.
Blair, Chauncey J.
Blair, Henry A.
Blair, Watson F.
Bode, Frederick
Booth, W. Vernon
Bowen, Joseph T.
Bojrnton, Charles T.
Brand, Rudolph
Bremer, Herman H.
Brill, George M .
Brown, William L.
Buckingham, Clarence
Buda Foundry & Manufacturing
Company
Buffington, Eugene J.
Burley, Clarence A.
Bumham, Daniel H.
Bush, William H.
Butler, Edward B.
Butler, Estate of Hermon B.
Butz, Otto C.
Canby, Caleb H.
Carpenter, Augustus A., Jr.
Carpenter, Benjamin
Carr, Clyde M.
Carry, Edward F.
Carton, Laurence A.
Chalmers, William J.
Chapin, S. B. & Company.
Clark, John M.
Clow, WiUiam E.
Cochran, J. Lewis
Cofran, John W. G.
Comstock, Charles G.
Condron, Theodore L.
Conover, Charles H.
Corwith, Charles R.
Cowan, William K.
Cowles, Alfred
Cox, Rensselaer W.
Crane, Charles R.
Crane, Richard T. Jr.
Crowell, Henry P.
Cudahy, Michael
Culver, Helen
Cummings, D. Mark
Cummings, Edmund A.
Cunningham, Frank S.
Dau, J. J.
Dawes, Charles G.
Day, Chapin A.
Deering, Charles
Deering, James
xvi
Delano, Frederic A.
Dewes, Francis J.
Dewey, Albert B.
De Wolf, Wallace L.
Dick, Albert B.
Dixon, Arthur
Donnelley, Thomas E.
Downey, Joseph
Durand, Elliott
Earling, Albert J.
Eckhart, Barnard A.
Eckstein, Louis
Edward Hines Lumber Company
Eisendrath, Joseph N.
Eitel, Emil
Ellsworth, James W.
Ewen, John M.
Fair, Robert M.
Falkenau, Victor
Farwell, Granger
Farwell, John V.
Fay, Charles N.
Felton, Samuel M.
Ferguson, Louis A.
Fetzer, John C.
Field, John S.
Field, Stanley
Findeisen & Kropf Manufacturing
Company
Foote, Erastus
Foreman, Edwin G.
Forgan, David R.
Forgan, James B.
Frost, Albert C.
FuUer, WiUiam A.
Gardner, WiUiam A.
Gerstenberg, Erich G.
Gilbert, Harry K.
Glessner, John J.
Goodman, Herbert E.
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
xvii
Granger, Alfred H.
Greeley-Howaid Company
Gregory, Robert B.
Grey, Charles F.
Grosscup, Peter S.
Gurley, WiUiam W.
Hamill, Ernest A.
Hammond, Robert R.
Hardy, F. A. & Company
Harris, George B.
Harris, John F.
Harris, Joseph
Harris, Norman W.
Hart, H. Stillson
Haskell, Frederick T.
Hately, John C.
Haugan, Helge A.
Hewitt, Charles M.
Heyworth, James O.
Heyworth, Lawrence
Holt, George H.
Hoover, Frank K.
Horton, George T.
Horton, Horace £.
Houghteling, James L.
Hoyt, WiUiam M.
Hughitt, Marvin
Hulbert, Edmund D.
Hulburd, Charles H.
Hull, Morton D.
Hurley, Edward N.
Hutchins, James C.
Hutchinson, Charles L.
Insull, Samuel
Isham, Mrs. R. N.
Jackson, George W.
James, Fred S.
Johnson, Frank S.
Johnston, Hugh McBimey
Jones, Arthur B.
Jones, David B.
Jones, Frank H.
Jones, William D.
Keep, Chauncey
KeUey, William V.
Kenna, Edward D.
Kent, William
Kesner, Jacob L.
Keyes, RoUin A.
Kimball, Charles F.
KimbaU, W. W. Co.
Kurz, Adolph
Laflin, LfOuis E.
Lamont, Robert P.
Langhorst, Henry A.
Lathrop, Bryan
Lawrence, Dwight
Lawson, Victor F.
Lefens, Thies J.
Leicht, Edward A.
Lincoln, Robert T.
Lindgren, John R.
Linn, William R.
Lobdell, Edwin L.
Logan, Frank G.
Lombard, Isaac G.
Lord, John B.
Lowden, Frank O.
Lynch, John A.
Lyon, John K.
Lytton, Henry C.
MacVeagh, Franklin
Madlener, Albert F.
Magnus, August C.
Mandel, Leon
Mark, Clayton
Martin, William P.
Matz, Rudolph
Mayer, Levy
McCord, Alvin C.
McCormick, Cyrus H.
McCormick, Harold F.
McCullough, Hiram R.
McLaughlin, William F.
Meeker, Arthur
Mendius, Carl
Merrjrweather, George
Miller, Darius
Miller, Harry I.
Miller, John S.
Miner, William H.
Mitchell, John J.
Mitten, Thomas E.
Modjeski, Ralph
Morris, Edward
Morron, John R.
Morton, Joy
Morton, Mark
Murdock, Thomas
Norlin, Fred
Norton, Charles D.
Noyes, Frank B.
Noyes, La Verne W.
Ortmann, Rudolph
Ortseifen, Adam
Otis, Joseph £. Estate
Otis, Spencer
Paepcke, Hermann
Palmer, Honore
Palmer, Percival B.
Palmer, Potter, Jr.
Paper Mills Company, The
Patten, James A.
Peabody, Francis B.
Peabody, Francis S.
Pirie, John T., Jr.
Pitkin, Edward H.
Pool, Marvin B.
Pope, Henry
Porter, Henry H.
Porter, Henry H., Jr.
Potter, Edwin A.
Rawson, Frederick H
Rehm, William H.
Revell, Alexander H.
Reynolds, George M.
Rickcords, George E.
Ripley, Edward P.
Robinson, Theodore W.
Rogers, Brown & Company
Rosenthal, Benjamin J.
Rosenwald, Julius
Rubens, Harry
Rudolph, Franklin
Russell, Edmund A.
Russell, Brewster & Company
Ryerson, Edwin L.
Ryerson, Martin A.
Sard, William H.
Sargent, George M.
Scott, John W.
Scully, Arthur B.
M>t >!■■■■ Ill HMUfjfjl
!ocn
^^^s^smfssxisssses^msmass^s^
XVUl
Sears, Richard W.
Seipp, Philip W.
Selz, J. Harry
Shaflfer, John C.
Sha£fner, Joseph
Shedd, Edward A.
Shedd, John G.
Shirk, Elbert W.
Simpson, James
Skinner, Edward M.
Smith, Byron L.
Smith, Mrs. George T.
Smith, Orson
Smith, Walter B.
Soper, James P.
Spoor, John A.
Sprague, Albert A.
Sprague, Otho S. A.
Starring, Mason B.
Stevens, Charles A.
Stillwell, Homer A.
Strobel, Charles L.
Stumer, Louis M.
Sullivan, Roger C.
Sunny, Bernard E.
Swift, Charles H.
LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS
Swift, Edward F.
Swift, George B.
Swift, Louis F.
Theurer, Joseph
Thoman, Leroy D.
Thomas, Benjamin
Thompson, John R.
Thompson, William M.
Thome, Charles H.
Thome, George R.
Tilden, Edward
Tilt, Joseph E.
Turner, Edward A.
Uhrlaub, Adolph
Uihlein, Edgar J.
Upham, Frederic W.
Van Valkenburg, William
Viles, James, Jr.
Wacker, Charles H.
Walker, Henry H.
Wallace, John FT
Ward, A. Montgomery
Wamer, Ezra J.
Warren, William S.
Watson, J. V.
Watson, William J.
Wells, Addison E.
Wells, M. D. Company
Wheeler, Arthur D.
Wheeler, Charles P.
Wheeler, Harry A.
Wilder, John E.
Wilder, T. Edward
WiUard, Daniel
Willing, Mark S.
WiUits, Ward W.
Wilmarth, Mrs. Mary J.
Wilson, John P.
Wilson, Walter H.
^nchell, Benjamin L.
Winston, Frederick S.
Winston, Payne, Strawn & Shaw
Wolff, L. Manufacturing Company
Wrenn, John H.
Young, Charles O.
PLAN OF CHICAGO
jM m n m m uwmmtmmmBmmmumt mm/ m mfUmm
aBasgnmnosrarasB
•-
n. WOOI>-CUT OF CHICAGO IN 1S84.
PLAN OF CHICAGO
CHAPTER I
ORIGm OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO; THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION OF 1893 AND ITS
RESULTS: THE SPIRIT OF CHICAGO
HE tendency of mankind to congregate in cities is a marked char-
acteristic of modem times. This movement is confined to no one
country, but is world-wide. Each year Rome, and the cities of
the Orient, as well as Berlin, New York, and Chicago, are adding
to their population at an unprecedented rate. Coincident with this
urban development there has been a widespread increase in wealth,
and also an enlarged participation on the part of the people in the
work of government. As a natural result of these causes has come
the desire to better the conditions of living. Men are becom-
ing convinced that the formless growth of the city is neither eco-
nomical nor satisfactory; and that overcrowding and congestion of traffic paralyze the vital
functions of the city. The complicated problems which the great city develops are now seen not
to be beyond the control of aroused public sentiment; and practical men of affairs are turning
their attention to working out the means whereby the city may be made an efficient instrument
for providing all its people with the best possible conditions of living.
Chicago, in common with other great cities, realizes that the time has come to bring order out
of the chaos incident to rapid growth, and especially to the influx of people of many nationalities
without common traditions or habits of life. Among the various instrumentalities designed to
accomplish this result, a plan for a well-ordered and convenient city is seen to be indispensable;
and to the task of producing such a plan the Commercial Club has devoted its energies for the
past three years.
It is not to be expected that any plan devised while as yet few civic problems have received
3 PLAN OF CHICAGO
final solution will be perfect in all its details. It is claimed For the plan herein presented, that
it is the result of extended and careful study of the needs of Chicago, made by disinterested men
of wide experien^ amid the very conditions which it is sought to remedy; and that during the
years devoted to its preparation the plan has had the benefit of varied and competent criticism.
The real test of this plan will be found in its application; for, such is the determination of the
m. THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSmON, CmCAGO. 18»3.
The Court of Honor, knkJDg towards the Perisljrle.
people to secure more perfect conditions, it is certain that if the plan is really good it will com-
mend itself to the progressive spirit of the times, and sooner or later it will be carried out.
It should be imderstood, however, that such radical changes as are proposed herein cannot
possibly be realized immediately. Indeed, the aim has been to anticipate the needs of the future
eis well as to provide for the necessities of the present: in short, to direct the development of the
city tovrards an end that must seem ideal, but is practical. Therefore it is quite possible that
when particular portions of the plan shall be taken up for execution, wider knowledge, longer
experience, or a change in local conditions may suggest a better solution; but, on the other hand,
f
i.1
^1
It
H
si
si
^^gsodoocpaqr uHiiikJimmitiUmw H I wi i Miu tM i Hi ' ^ ■ Miiw>iiii!iiii aB8BtaMB »iua^uuw i wiikMMM!iM I't I I ww n nju BLiiflmF r n 'i I ^c^^j g^ tKgaatwcscgyqgftgggagac^^
4 PLAN OF CHICAGO
before any departure shall be determined upon, it should be made clear that such a change is
justified.
If many elements of the proposed plan shall seem familiar, it should be remembered that
the purpose has not been to invent novel problems for solution, but to take up the pressing needs
of to-day, and to find the best methods of meeting those requirements, carrying each particular
problem to its ultimate conclusion as a component part of a great entity, — a well-ordered,
convenient, knd imified city.
This conception of the task is the justification of a comprehensive plan of Chicago. To
many who have given little consideration to the subject, a plan seems to call for large expendi-
tures and a consequent increase in taxation. The reverse is the case. It is certain that civic
improvement will go on at an accelerated rate; and if those improvements shall be marshaled
according to a well-ordered plan great saving must result. Good order and convenience are
not expensive; but haphazard and ill-considered projects invariably result in extravagance and
wastefulness. A plan insures that whenever any public or semi-public work shall be undertaken,
it will fall into its proper and predetermined place in the general scheme, and thus contribute
to the unity and dignity of the dty.
The plan frankly takes into consideration the fact that the American city, and Chicago pre-
eminently, is a center of industry and traffic. Therefore attention is given to the betterment of
commercial fadUties; to methods of transportation for persons and for goods; to removmg the
obstacles which prevent or obstruct circulation; and to the increase of convenience. It is real-
ized, also, that good workmanship requires a large degree of comfort on the part of the workers
in their homes and their surroundings, and ample opportunity for that rest and recreation with-
out which aU work becomes drudgery. Then, too, the dty has a dignity to be maintained; and
good order is essential to material advancement. Consequently, the plan provides for impres-
sive groupings of public buildings, and reciprocal relations among such groups. Moreover, con-
sideration is given to the fact that in aU probability Chicago, within the lifetime of persons now
living, will become a greater dty than any existing at the present time; and that dierefore the
most comprehensive plans of to-day will need to be supplemented in a not remote future.
Opportunity for stich expansion is provided for.
The origin of the plan of Chicago can be traced directly to the World's Columbian Exposi-
tion. The World's Fair of 1893 was the beginning, in our day and in this country, of the orderly
arrangement of extensive public grounds and buildings. The result came about quite naturally.
Chicago had become a commercial community wherein men were accustomed to get together
to plan for the general good. Moreover, those at the head of affairs were, many of them, the same
individuals who had taken part in every movement since the dty had emerged from the con-
dition of a mere village. They were so accustomed to results even beyond their most sanguine
predictions, that it was easy for them to believe that their Fair might surpass aU fairs that
had preceded it.
Then, too, the men of Chicago, trained in intense commerdal activity, had learned the lesson
that great success cannot be attained unless the special work in hand shall be entrusted to those
best fitted to undertake it. It had become the habit of our business men to select some one
to take the responsibility in every important enterprise; and to give to that person earnest, lo)ral,
and steadfast support. Thus the design and arrangement of the buildings of the World's
Columbian Exposition, which have never been surpassed, were due primarily to the feeling of
i\N i;MN)Mr:-'N
/Y il. M'- \'-
V. THE WORLDS COLUUBUN EXPOSTTION CROOMDS IN JACKSON PARX.
FUn ibowiiig tbc h&imoiuinia (unagement at buUdinga.
6 PLAN OF CHICAGO
loyalty to the city and to its undertakings; and secondly, to the hahit of entnistii^ great works
to men trained in the practice of such undertakings.*
The results of the World's Fair of 1893 were many and far-reaching. To the people of
Chicago the dignity, beauty, and convenience of the transitory city in Jackson Park seemed to
call for the improvement of the water front of the city. With this idea in mind, the South Park
Commissioners, during the year following the Fair, proposed the improvement of the Lake
VL TEE LAKE FRONT PARK, EXTENDINO FKOU JACKSON PARK TO GRANT PARK. ALONG THE SOCTH SHORE
OF LAKE MICHIGAN.
OTigioal plan, 1896.
front from Jackson Park to Grant Park. Following out this suggestion, a plan for a connection
between the two parks was drawn to a large scale, and the project was presented at a meeting of
the West and South Park Commissioners. Later this design was exhibited at a dinner given by
the Commercial Club; and many business men were emphatic in expressing their conviction that
the proposed scheme would be of enormous value to Chicago, and that it should be adopted
and carried into execution. This was the Inception of the project for a park out in the Lake,
having a lagoon between it and the shore.
During the next three or four years more careful studies of the Lake front scheme were made,
and very large drawings were prepared for a meeting at the Women's Club and the Art Institute,
■ A sienificant illustration of the spirit in which the Wirld's Fair work was conceived is found in one incident. On the ftppcnnted
day the an:hitecls assembled to submit to the general committee sketches for their several buildings. There had been a luncheon,
prolonged by tuiiniated discussion. The scheme as a whole had begun to take hold of the men. The short winter afternoon was
approaching an end, when Richard M, Hunt (then the dean of the architectural profession), suffering from the severe pains of rheuma-
tism, slowly arose to speak of the Administration Building, a sketch of which he fastened to the wall. The New York architect who
followed Mr. Hunt had on his building a dome four hundred and fifty feet high. Instantly a murmur ran around the group. The
designer turned from the sketch. "1 think," he said, with deliberation, "I shall not advocate that dome; and probably I shall modify
the building," There was a breath of satisfaction. The next architect had'a portico extending out over the terrace. Without wait-
ing for criticism, he said he should draw the portico back to the face of the building. As one b; one each man fastened his sketch to
the wall, it was as still as death in the room; and those present could feel the great work drawing them as by a magnet; and each
was wilUng to sacrifice bis personal ideas to secure the unitv of the whole composition. Finally the last drawing was uiown; the last
eiplaitation had been made. Mr. Sunt-Gaudens, who ha<l sat in a comer all day listening, but never speaking and scarcely moving,
went over to Mr. Bumham, and taking both his hands exclaimed: "Do you realize that this is the greatest nueting of artists since t^
fifteenth century?"
ORIGIN OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO 7
and for a Merchants Club dinner at the Auditorium. The newspapers and magazines, both
at home and throughout the country, united in commenting on and commending the undertak-
ing; and during the decade that has elapsed since the plans were first presented, the proposed
improvement has never been foigotten, but has ever been looked upon as something sure to be
accomplished. This was the beginning of a general plan for the city.
While these projects were in course of preparation, an extensive expansipn of the South Parks
VIL THE LAKE FRONT PARK. EXTENDING FROM JACKSON PARK TO GRANT PARK, ALONG THE SOUTH SHORE
OF LAKE MICHIGAN.
Modified plan, 1904.
system was in progress, and a plan was formulated for a metropolitan park system, including an
outer belt of parks and parkways. These movements were started with enei^ in 1903, under
the general direction of the South Park Commissioners and the Special Park Commission; and
the results of their work have been useful to those who have undertaken the present task.
Early in 1906 the Merchants Club armnged for the preparation of a complete project for
the future development of Chicago. In order to facilitate the progress of the work, rooms were
built on the roof of Railway Exchange Building, where the drawii^ have been prepared and the
studies have been made. The Merchants Club and the Commercial Club having been merged
in 1907 under the name of the latter organization, the work has continued under the auspices of
that association. The committee on the plan has held several hundred meetings; during many
weeks meetings have taken 'place daily; and throughout the entire time no week has passed with-
out one or more such gatherings. By invitation of the Club, the Governor of Illinois, the Mayor
of Chicago, and many other public officials have visited the rooms- where the work was in progress,
and have become familiar with the entire scheme as it was being worked out. The Department of
State, through the United States consuls in various European cities, has furnished valuable infor-
mation relative to civic developments now in progress. Thus the plans have had the benefit of
many criticisms and suggestions, made by persons especially conversant with existii^ conditions.
8 PLAN OF CHICAGO
Moreover, visitors interested in the improvement of cities and in park woik of all kinds have
come from both our own and foreign towns; and trom them also much of value and encourage-
ment has been gained.
In presenting this report, the Commercial Club realizes that from time to time supplemen-
tary reports will be necessary to emphasize one feature or another which may come prominently
before the public for adoption. At the same time, it is confidently believed that this presentation
of the entire subject accomplishes the task which has been recognized from the outset, namely:
First, to make the careful study of the physical conditions of Chicago as they now exist;
Second, to discover how those conditions may be improved;
Third, to record such conclusions in the shape of drawings and texts which shall become a
guide for the future development of Chicago.
In creating the ideal arrangement, every one who lives here is better accommodated in his
business and his social activities. , In bringing about better freight and passenger facilities, every
merchant and manufacturer is helped. In establishing a complete park and parkway system, the
life of the wage-earner and of his family is made healthier and pleasanter; while the greater
attractiveness thus produced keeps at home the people of means and taste, and acts as a magnet
to draw those who seek to live amid pleasing surroimdings. The very beauty that attracts him
who has money makes pleasant the life of those among whom he lives, while anchoring him and
his wealth to the city. The prosperity aimed at is for all Chicago.
This same spirit which carried out the Exposition in such a manner as to make it a lasting
credit to the city is still the soul of Chicago, vital and dominant; and even now, although many
new men are at the front, it still controls and is doing a greater work than it was in 1893. It
finds the men; it makes the occasion; it attracts the sincere and unselfish; it vitalizes the organ-
ization, and impels it to reach heights not believed possible of attainment. This spirit still exists.
It is present to-day among us. Indeed, it seems to gather force with the years and the oppor-
tunities. It is even now impellh^ us to larger and better achievements for the public good. It
conceals no private purpose, no hidden ends. This spirit — the spirit of Chicago — is our great-
est asset. It is not merely civic pride: it is rather the constant, steady determination to bring
about the very best conditions of city life for all the people, with full knowledge that what we as
a people decide to do in the public interest we can and surely wiU bring to pass.
IX. THE PYRAMIDS AT GIZEH.
CHAPTER II
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES: COMMERCE A LEADING MOTIVE IN CITY
BUILDING: BABYLON, EGYPT, ATHENS, AND ROME: MEDLBVAL CITIES: THE DEVELOPMENT
OF PARIS: CITY PLANNING IN GERMANY: OVERCOMING CONGESTION IN LONDON: WASH-
INGTON A CITY BUILT ON A PLAN: OTHER AMERICAN CITIES
ROM earliest times, two motives have governed the location of
cities: either the site was selected because it offered natural
means of defense, or else commerce gathered men at a particular
point, about which they built fortifications. In either case, the
necessity of protection against enemies from without conditioned
the form and arrangement of the city. Even in this western
hemisphere the question of defense has been of moment. Louis-
burg and Quebec; Boston, New York, and Yorktown; Mackinac
and New Orleans; Charleston, Mobile, Vicksburg, and New
Orleans i^;am, — are names which recall sieges and battles of three
wars; while the walled towns of Europe find their counterparts in the palisaded settlements
which sprang up in the Indian country of North America, Chicago itself being a typical example.
lo PLAN OF CHICAGO
It is only within recent times that the city has been able to extend its borders free from the
restraints imposed by the necessity of warding off a foe.
The first city-builder whose exploits are recorded was Semiramis, queen of Babylon; and
although the history of that country, as recorded on its monuments, fails to mention even the
name of this war-like ruler, we may
not disregard the circumstantial ac-
counts given by classical writers of
the greatest commercial city of ancient
times. Diodorus tells us that Semir-
amis, being of an aspiring spirit and
anxious to excel all her predecessors
in glorious actions, set about building
a great city in the province of Babylon.
First she had complete plans prepared
by her architects and artists, then she
assembled from all parts of her empire
the men necessary for the work of
construction. For the promotion of
commerce, she located the city on the
banks of the river Euphrates; and
round about it she built a wall, very
high, fortified with many turrets, and
so broad at the top that thereon chariots mi^t be driven abreast. Across the river she threw a
bridge five furlongs in length, with arches having a span of twelve feet. Aloi^ either shore of
the river she raised a bank as broad as the wall; and temporarily turning aside the cotirse of the
stream, she made in the bed of the river a passage in
the form of a tunnel to serve as a connection between
her two palaces, which were also lookouts whence
she could conmiand every portion of the city. Other
cities on the banks of the Tigris and the Euphrates
Semiramis built, and there she established traffic
centers for the vendii^ of merchandise brought from
Media, Persia, India, Egypt, and other countries
reached by the two great rivers, which in those
ancient times vied with the Nile and the Ganges.
So by her able policy she greatly enriched the
merchants who trafficked in those parts, and
advanced the glory and majesty of Babylon.
The ancient Egyptians, hemmed in by desf
relied less on walls than on the defenses provided
by nature. Thus relieved from the necessity of building fortifications, they expended
their energies in such monumental works as the Great Pyramids and temples that embody a
civilization which for at least nine thousand years has been the wonder and the admiration of
the world.
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES ii
Means of defense having been provided, the desire of mankind for order and magnificence
found expression in works of adornment, which were measured only by the love of the citizens
for their city, the artistic sense developed among the people, and the means at their disposal
for carrying out their conceptions. No-
where else have these conditions been
combined as they were in Athens dur-
ing the days of Pericles. Year by year
the patient excavator is bringing to the
light the massive walls by which the
early Athenians protected their citadel
against the invader; and when security
had been obtained and the tribute of
the allies had accumulated in the treas-
wry, the Greek passion for beauty found
expression in public buildings which
through the ages have placed the
Acropolis at Athens among the world's
famous places. Plutarch lays emphasis
on the fact that undertakings, any one
of which singly might have required
for its completion several successions
and ages of men, were every one of
them accomplished in the height and
prime of one man's political service.
"Pericles' works," this same writer
asserts, "were especially admired be-
cause they were made quickly to last
long. For every particular piece of his
work was immediately, even at that
time, for its beauty and elegance,
antique; and yet in its vigor and fresh-
ness looks to this day as if it were just
executed. There is a sort of bloom of
newness upon those works of his, pre-
serving them from the touch of time, as
if they had some perennial spirit and
undying vitality mingled in the compo-
sition of them."
As Athens represents the highest
expression of civic beauty which mankind has witnessed, so Rome stands for power and the
magnificence thereof. Mistress of the world she styled herself; and to-day she can still
lay claim to her other proud title of the " Eternal City." It is not until we come to
Roman times that we begin to obtain the combination of elements which are the chief
characteristics of the modem city; namely, opportunities for the healthful life of the great body
Xn. PLAN SHOWING NERO'S CIRCUS AT ROME (FIRST CEN-
TURY), BASIUCA OF ST. PETER (FOURTH CENTURY), AND THE
PRESENT CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER (SIXTEENTH CENTURY).
These structures were built at successive epochs, on the same site.
PLAN OF CHICAGO
of the citizens. "Parks, gardens, commons, and public squares," says Landani, "have been
happily compared to the lungs of a city; and if the health and general welfare of a city depend
upon the normal and sound function of its respiratory organs, ancient Rome, in this respect, must
be considered as the healthiest city
which has ever existed on earth." '
This writer enumerates, as existing at
the end of the third century after Christ,
eight commons, or green spaces, set
apart mostly for foot-races and gym-
nastic exercises; eighteen public squares,
and about thirty parks and gardens, at
first laid out by private citizens for their
personal comfort, but afterwards ab-
sorbed into the imperial domain by
purchase, bequest, or confiscation. Be-
sides these were the cemeteries, marble
cities of the dead, shadowed by stately
q^resses and weeping- willows; the
sacred enclosures of the temples, with
... I J J e i • iL 3tIV. THE PONTE MOLLE, ROME.
their colonnades and fountams; the Fmm an nching by Piraned.
■ Ancient Rome, Chap. IV.
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES 13
porticoes, expressly built for the sake of allowing citizens to move about pleasantly in hot or
rainy weather; and lastly, the great baths, establishments provided with every possible comfort
and accommodation to insure the health of the body and the education of the mind."
Out of the original market-place occupying the marshy ground between the Palatine and the
Capitol, the Roman Forum was gradually evolved, with temples, treasure-houses, places for for-
eign ambassadors, the senate-house, the court-house, triiunphal arches, and historic moniunents.
Here was indeed the civic center of Rome, the place of religion, business, and politics. Adjoin-
ing the Forum proper were other forums, gifts to the state, purchased at a cost, in the case of
Caesar's Forum, of $44.45 ^ square foot, or over four million dollars. Trajan's gift of land alone
amounted to four times that siun, and the completed work was reckoned the masterpiece of
Roman architecture of the golden age.
The baths of Rome, both public and private, had accommodations for 62,800 citizens at
a single time, and also every Roman house was provided with bathing facilities. Beautiful
porticoes enabled one to cross under shelter the whole plain of the Campus Martins, a space of
between two and three miles; and sunilar structures connected all the great buildings of the city,
serving for markets and exchanges and picture-galleries, and ministering to a thousand different
wants. Lovely gardens, with thickets of box, laurel, and myrtle, with lakes and fountains, were
enclosed by these porticoes, which were in themselves architectural creations of rare marbles,
the floors often being inlaid with jasper and porphyry. The surrounding hills and the valleys
between, once the dumping-place of the city's refuse, were converted into magnificent gardens,
forming stretches of verdure in length sometimes exceeding two miles in a single composition.
To-day, after centuries of destruction and decay, Rome is taking on new life. Her popula-
tion is fast increasing; since 1870 scores of millions of dollars have been spent on works of public
utility and general improvement; great thoroughfares have been created, the monuments of the
past have been opened to the light and air, the pestilential conditions that during the centuries of
her decadence hung over the city like a pall have been removed by wise sanitation; the great
estates of noble families have been given over to the public; and again the compelling power of
Rome is being felt throughout the civilized world.
During the slow centuries which followed upon the destruction and decay of ancient civili-
zation, no great works of civic utility or adornment were undertaken, and the old were no longer
maintained. As the consciousness of national life again began to assert itself in Europe, and the
unifjdng forces of Christianity and Roman law began to bind hmnanity together, the cities of
Italy, of Germany, of France, and of England grew strong and rich by industry and traffic;
and throughout western Europe the sense of permanence and power found expression in the
rearing and beautification of cities. Everywhere the same spirit actuated the people, although in
each land the mode of expression took on characteristic form; and since the vital principle was
religion, the cathedral became the embodiment of the highest expression in civic art.
No city in the world, says Charles Eliot Norton, appeals more strongly to the poetic imagina-
tion than Venice. Rising in the dawn of modem Europe, she linked the tradition of the old
civilization to the fresh conditions of the new. The destiny that ruled her beginnings seemed,
as she grew, to have had no element of chance, but to have been determined by foresight and wise
counsel. Her statesmen were the ablest, her merchants the most adventurous and most success-
ful, her seamen the boldest, her craftsmen the most skillful, of their time. The affection in which
she was held by her people had the depth and intensity of a passion.* As it was with Venice, so
^ Church Building in the Middle Ages.
14 PLAN OF CHICAGO
in a scarcely less degree it fared with Florence and Siena, and other independent cities of Italy,
which vied with one another not only in power, but much more in beauty and in the love
borne them by their citizens. And to-day
their charm makes them the resort of
people of taste and refinement, long after
their power has waned and only their beautf
remains.
Cit^ planning, in the sense of r^arding
the city as an organic whole and of develop-
ing its various units with reference to their re-
lations one to another, had its origin in Paris
during the Bourbon period. Among great
cities, Paris has reached the highest stage of
development; and the method of this attain-
j^^ ment affords lessons for all other cities.
Paris owes its origin and its growth to the
convenience of its location in view of in-
creasing commercial conditions. Its begin-
nings go back to the century before the
Christian era, when it was but a straggling
vUlage called Lutetia, occupying one of the
islands in the Seine. On the vast level plain
adjoining the town, houses coiild be erected
indefinitely, while the numerous watercourses
extending into the surrounding regions gave
easy access to the trader. Fertile lands
furnished an abundance of provisions; and
brick-clay, lime, and- sand, with timber
from the neighboring forests, provided mate-
rials for building. The surroundings of
Paris, so rich in all the requisites for the
creation of a great city, are similar to those
of London and Berlin and Chicago; and in
each instance there is the same breadth in
the landscape.
The architects to whom Louis XIV.
entrusted his planning went far beyond the
compact walled city of their day. In the open
fields which the growth of Paris must sooner
or later transform into streets and avenues
they drew the central axis of the city.
XV. TTtANSFORUATioN OF TOE BANxs OF THE SEINE Straight, vast iH width, and wlthout limit of
length, this avenue passed entirely through
open country, with scarcely a dozen buUdii^
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES 15
throughout its great extent. To the noted city-builders of the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries. — Louis XIV., Colbert, Le N6tre, Blondel, and the Academy of Archi-
tects, — Paris owes those vast reaches of
avenue and boiUevard which to-day are the
crowning features of the most beautiful of
cities. The Paris of their day was indeed a
crowded, congested city; but the Paris which
they conceived and laid out in the deserts
and waste places was the widespreading,
well-adorned, and convenient city in which
to-day all the world takes delight. The
Madeleine, the Place de la Concorde, the
Invalides, and the great axial avenue from
the garden of the Tuileries to the Place
de I'Etoile, — all existed on paper decades ^^^
before they were finally realized in the prog-
ress of city building. The point of interest
to us is, that as Paris increased in population,
the city grew according to a well-devised,
syrnmet rica^. hji^i^ developed plan; and
' * ' ' * id
at
780, 1830, 1880. id
The dates under the views on page 15 should read °"
Tbe dates under the views on page 14 should read
1780, 1830,
The date
1740, 1841,
Old Paris remained, with its dirty,
crowded, ill-smelling, nanow, winding streets,
the hotbeds of vice and crime. Napoleon
Bonaparte was quick to see that while the
Paris of the futiure might indeed grow in at-
tractiveness and convenience, the Paris of the
present demanded his attention. Napoleon
was disturbed over the condition of his cap-
ital. He realized that the city, then num-
bering some seven hundred thousand people,
was destined to become the home of two,
three, or even four millions; and he proposed
to give it a splendor never before realized by
any city in the world. He began to open the
Rue de Rivoli, north of the Tuileries gar-
dens; he created the Rue Napoleon (now the
XVI. CHRONOLOGICAL VIEWS OP TBE PLACB DE U,
BASTILLE. PARIS.
,.,. _ , ,. I,.. 1 The evtdutioii of the cattle md moat toitiprc
Vendome; nom tbe medixval bndges he idoia and boulevard it shown
Rue de la Paix) in the axis of the Place _ bastoxe. paris.
The evtdutioii of the cattle and moat to iti present form of
1
I
I
ii
I
^
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES 17
swept the superstructures, adding three superb new crossings of the Seine; he built the first
sidewalks in Paris, and lighted the streets at night; and he transformed the banks of the river
by the construction of three thousand meters of new quays. He also gave to Paris her great
commemorative monuments, the Arc de Triomphe de I'Etoile, which was finished by Louis
XVm. FA&IS. PLAK PROPOSED BY H. EUGENE BeUaRD FOR ADDmONAL RADIAL ARTERIES AND AN INNER
aRCtnr boulevard on which would front the principal existing administrative buildings and many
PUBUC monuments.
The system, invdving radical cuts tbrough tbe blocks and widening of existing arteries, is shown by batclied lines.
Philippe, the Arc du Carrousel, and the Column Venddme, all of which were foreshadowed in
the designs of Louis XIV.
It remained for the third Napoleon, however, to accomplish the great work of breaking
through the old city, of opening it to light and air, and of making it fit to sustain the army
of merchants and manufacturers which makes Paris to-day the center of a commerce as wide
as civilization itself. In 1S53, Geoi^es Eugene Haussmann became prefect of the Seine, the
appointment being in the nature of a promotion due to the successful administration of the office
of prefect in other French cities. Immediately Haussmann began a career which has established
■«■■■« ^ "I U"JUUt
■li WM I UM!IM B«I LWM W i ll lJULMil l WUil li «illiim SgC^
i8 PLAN OF CHICAGO
for all time his place among the city-builders of the world. As if by intuition he grasped the
entire problem. Taking counsel neither of expediency nor of compromise, he ever sought the
true and proper solution. To him Paris appeared as a highly organized unit, and he strove to
create ideal conditions throughout the entire city. The world gives him credit for the highest
success. The people of Paris have always supported those who aimed to make their city grand
and beautiful. Proud, ambitious, endowed with good taste and an artistic sense, the Parisians
have ever been zealous to make their city the capital not only of the state, but also of
civilization.
Haussmann never overlooked the great and broad lines laid down by his predecessors; so
that to a considerable extent his work was but the continuation of the plans prepared by Louis
XIV. in the later years of the seventeenth century. His peculiar task, however, was to provide
adequate means of circulation within the old city, by cutting new streets and widenmg old ones,
by sweeping away unwholesome rookeries, and by opening up great spaces in order to disengage
monuments of beauty and historic interest He placed the great railway stations of Paris in a
circle about the old center of the city, and opened up fine avenues of approach to them. At times
he foimd it less expensive, and also less disturbing, to build a new street through the blocks, rather
than to widen old streets; and it was his special care to create diagonal thoroughfares in order
to shorten distances, and also to give picturesqueness to the street s)rstem by the creation of those
comer lots which the architects of Paris have learned so well how to improve.*
The task which Haussmann accomplished for Paris corresponds with the work which must be
done for Chicago, in order to overcome the intolerable conditions which invariably arise from a
rapid growth of population. At the time he began, the population of Paris was half a
million less than the population of Chicago to-day. The work was accomplished at a cost of
$265,000,000. That portion of the improvements relating, to the palaces was borne entirely by
the nation, the remainder being divided between the nation and the city, the former paying
one-third and the latter two-thirds of the Qxpense. ^t was Haussmann's theory that the money
thus spent made a better city, and that a better city was a greater producer of wealth.^ Expe-
rience has amply justified his contention. The convenience and beauty of Paris bring large
returns in money as well as in aesthetic satisfaction.'
In Europe, during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, a widespread impulse towards
city planning foimd expression in all the great towns. This movement was made possible by
the fact that since the termination of the Franco-Prussian war, in 1870, there has been peace
throughout Europe, and the money which theretofore had been wasted on swords and spears
now found productive employment in plowshares and pruning-hooks. From out the turmoil
and strife which marked the first two-thirds of the century, Germany arose united, alert,
vigorous, ambitious, like a lusty youth, realizing both the opportunities before him and his own
strength of body, mind, and will to take advantage of every opening. Austria, unwillingly
freed from the incubus of Italy, foimd in imion with Hungary a strength never before possessed ;
and Vienna and Budapest became centers of intense activity, which developed along lines of
^ Baron Haussmann and the Topographical Transformation of Paris; by Edward R. Smhh, Reference Librarian, Avery
Architectural Library, Columbia University. The Architectural Record, 1907.
' A reasonable estimate, for the single year 1907, of the gold imported into France by travelers, to be spent in hotels, trans-
portation, amusements, and purchases, is |i5oo,ooo,ooo, a sum equal to the highest gold reserve of the Bank of France. Americans
commonly exaggerate both their numbers and their expenditures in France; but one-fifth of this sum ($120,000,000) may safely be
set down as theu- share. — French Finance^ by Stoddard Dewey ^ Atlantic Monthly, Augtist, 1908.
CITY PLANNING IN MODERN AND ANCIENT TIMES 19
commercial progress, and also took on forms of
convenience and orderliness which have served
as examples the world over. Italy, once ^ain
shaking off the foreign yoke, became united
under the rule of her own people. France, put-
ting aside for the moment ideas of foreign dom-
ination, set herself to the task of leadii^ all
nations in the world of art and taste. England,
drawing her princely revenues from eveiy hemi-
sphere, watched her commerce develop as her
mdustries grew and her wealth increased.
Moreover, the past thirty-eight years of peace
throughout Europe coincides with the period
m which the greatest discoveries in the realm of
natural forces, as applied to industry, have been
made and utilized. So that the capital saved
as the result of peace has yielded returns that
have been increased m geometrical ratio, until
we have reached the days not only of unparal-
leled wealth, but also of unparalleled opportuni-
ties for increasing wealth. Moreover, peace has
widened the field of traffic, so that no nation
now relies merely on its own people for its com-
merce, but out of every nation come the finest
fruits of its industry to satisfy the world's demands.
And inasmuch as there are no bounds to human
wants and satisfactions, the triumphs and the
rewards of commerce find no limits.
All this commercial activity, suddenly devel-
oped by turning the capital of the world into
productive channels, found the cities of Europe
ill adapted to meet the changed conditions.
The great towns, Paris excepted, were still in
the swaddling-clothes of the Middle Ages; they
were walled towns with narrow, tortuous streets,
picturesque indeed, but absolutely unfitted for
commerce or manufactures according to the
modem scale. All the conditions, therefore, made
imperative the transformation of the old portions
of cities to meet modem demands for circu-
lation, and the extension of their borders to provide for the constant increase in popula-
tion. Everywhere throughout Europe the design of the cosmopolitan city as planned by the
architects of Louis XIV. became the model; everywhere the work of Haussraann in opening
congested regions of old cities by means of straight thoroughfares found imitators. Vienna with
XX. crry center, Vienna, after transporma-
ITONS UADE BY ORDER OF FRANCIS JOSEPH
IN 1847.
PLAN OF CHICAGO
XXL LONDON. PLAN O? ALD-
WyCH AND KINCSWAY CON-
NECTING HOLBORN AND THE
STRAND
its Ringstrasse followed the example of Paris as expressed in the
boulevards of Colbert; in each case the old fortifications were
cleared away to make park-like thoroughfares. The heart of old
London was transformed by cutting new streets; Brussels was
divided by boulevards. In Italy, Rome, Florence, and Milan,
each carried out extensive schemes of improvement based on
French models.
With the Germans the cutting through of new streets was
undertaken for the twofold reason of facilitating traffic and of
admittii^ light and air into a too congested and unwholesome
city quarter. In Frankfort-on-the-Main, in Hambui^, in Ber-
lin, and in Dresden it became necessary to abolish with firm
hand evil conditions that had become intolerable, no matter at
what sacrifice of buildings enveloped with historical associations.
But the Germans have come to modify the French theory of
the unconditional superiority of the rectilinear avenue ; and now
they seek to maintain the essential character of the city, as in
the case of Darmstadt, by admitting strong curves, and, wher-
ever desirable, by narrowing or widening the thoroughfare,
making compensations by creating open spaces. They have
found, also, that a too extensive clearii^ away of the old build-
ings which cluster about a great minster or cathedral results in an
enhancement of effectiveness only at a sacrifice of scale and a loss
of picturesqueness. As a consequence, the Germans tave sought
a golden mean by creating about a monumental structiire free
room for the
beholder to see the essential parts of the building
from a sufficiently remote point of view, while
leavii^ undisturbed ^n^e structures small in
scale, in order that the main building may
appear to have grown out of its surroundings.'
In general, then, it may be said that while
the French or clasacal theory results in monu-
mental effects for a city and establishes unity,
the German or individualistic treatment pre-
serves for an old city a homelike feeling and
a pleasing variety. It is worthy of note,
however, that where city planning has been
undertaken by masters, whether in Franre
or Germany, the two Uieories have been
used as circumstances warranted. It is only
where designers are not able to handle their
' Geimaa City Planning; by Cornelius Garlitt. Translated
for the Metropolitan Impiovements Comnuaston of Boston, by
Sylvester Baxter.
XXIL LONDON TRAFHC COMMISSION'S PLAN FOR
NEW THOROUGHFARES TO OVERCOME CONGES-
TION, 1907.
Revised by Paul Walerhouse, f. k. i. b. a.
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES «
subject in its entirety^ but have become slaves to a S3^tem, that results have been attained at
great money cost and with a loss of charm and picturesqueness that by intdligent study might
have beeen saved.*
Napoleon Bonaparte, in exile on St. Helena, one day amused himself by planning improve-
ments for London. He would make, he said, a grand thoroughfare from St. Paul's to the Thames;
and two wide streets along the Thames, one on either side of the river. He would buQd more
bridges, and would remove from the vicinity of public buildings the mean old structures which
disfigure the fiine monuments. It would be easy to do this, he thou^t, in a city so rich as
London.* Albert Shaw, in his work on Municipal Government in Great Britainy sa]^: "If
London within the lifetime of men still in their prime had taken due precautions, what errors
might have been avoided ! London is now creating a park S3^tem, and acquiring land that has
quadrupled in value within thirty years. London is widening and straightening streets, and in-
creasing thereby the expense of appropriating frontage that costs twice as much now as it would
have cost a few years ago. The people of London suffer an inestimable loss in convenience and
actual money through the haphazard nature of passenger transportation facilities.''
After the great fire of September, 1666, London had the opportunity, so frequently offered
in America, of rectifying those unfortunate results which occur in all cities that have grown up;
and the sin of omission in the case of the British metropolis was the more impardonable, inas-
much as plans for improvement were prepared by one of the great architects of the world, Sir
Christopher Wren, only to be set aside by the perverse self-interest of the then citizens of London.
Wren's plans contemplated a city with streets radiating from central points, and the locations for
public buildings were arranged so as to give pleasing objects of sight at the end of long vistas, —
principles of civic arrangement which the English architect fixed on paper years before the French
city-builders adopted the same principles for the development of Paris.' The failure of Wren's
scheme of 1666 has cost London millions upon millions of money to repair in part the errors which
might have been avoided so easily, besides years of inconvenience and loss due to congestion of
traffic. From 1855 to 1900 one project after another for bettering the conditions in London has
been carried out, at a cost equal to nearly one hundred million dollars ; and now the new Traffic
Commission has reported a tentative plan for diminishing the congestion in street traffic by cut-
ting two great thoroughfares: one traversing the town from north to south, the other linking
Bayswater with Whitechapel, the estimated cost of the combined work being in the neighborhood
of $125,000,000 for land damages alone.^
Recently England has taken up in comprehensive manner the whole subject of housing the
working classes and of town planning. In 1890 a limited act was passed for the housing of the
working classes; and in 1907 this act was supplemented by ^^the small holdings and allottments
act." It is now proposed to extend the provisions of these acts to every urban and rural district.
The powers conferred center in the Local Government Board, to which local authorities apply
»
' The magnitude of the movement for dty planning in Germany is so great that literally hundreds of cities are now prosecuting
schemes of systematic extension and development; and a school of dty planners has grown up within the past twentv-five years, with
such men as Gurlitt, Stttbben, Theodor Fischer, and Baumeister among its masters. A well-edited magazine, "Der StSdtebau" (City
Planning) is published; and in 1903 the first German Municipal Exposition was held in Dresden.
* Talks with Napoleon; by Dr. Barry E. 0*Meara. The Century Magazine, February, 1890.
* History of London Street Improvements, 1855-1897; by Percy J. Edwards. The Making of a Plan for Washington; by
Glenn Brown; Park Improvement Papers; Washington, 1903. It is interesting to note, however, that the Thames Embankment
improvement was a portion of Wren's scheme.
* Some observations on the report of the Ro3ral Commissbn on London Traffic; by Paul Waterhouse. Read before the
Royal Institute of British Architects. Journal of the R. I. A., May 26 and June 16, 1906.
22 PLAN OF CHICAGO
for approval of the plans proposed; and in case these local authorities faU to make application,
the Board may order schemes to be prepared and carried out. There is also a Public Works
Loan Commission which authorizes loans for the purpose of carrying out the approved plans.*
We have found that those cities which retain their domination over the imaginations of man-
kind achieve that result through the harmony and beauty of their civic works; that these artistic
creations were made possible largely by the gains of commerce promoted by years of peace; and
XXm. OKIGINAL PLAN OF WASHU«lTOH DESIGNED BV PETER CHAKLES fCNFANT. 1791.
that intense loyalty on the part of the great body of the citizens was the chief impulse which led
them to strive to enhance the prestige and dignity of their city. We have found, also, that in
modem times the cities of Europe are everywhere making those changes which a rapid increase
. in trade and population requires, and which the awakened artistic sense of the people demands.
We turn now to our own country, to note the conditions which have controlled the development
of the American city, and to recount briefly some of the more noteworthy attempts that are being
made in the United States to give form and comeliness to our great towns.
Washington was planned and founded as the capital of a nation. The architects of Louis
' Mr. John Burns now advocales the pn>po«itkin that town planning schemes may be made as respects any land which appears
Hkelvto be used for buitding purposes; the geoersl object being to secure proper sanitary conditions, amenity, and convenience, m con-
nedian with the laying out and use of land. To this end the Local Government Board may authorize a local autboritf to prepare
nich a town planning scheme, with reference to any land within or in the neighborhood of their area, which scheme, when approved
by the Board, shall immediately take effect. The use of land for building purposes shall include provi^n for open spaces, parka,
pleasure, or recreation grounds; and where in any town planning scheme the area extends beyond a single local authority, a joint
Dody is provided for. Also the Board may take the initiative in preparing a plan, in case the local authorities fail or neglect to act.
See Housing, Town Planning, etc.. Bill, 8 Edw., 7.
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES 23
XIV. drew the lines of the new Paris
beyond the walls of the existing
town, and mapped avenues converg-
ing at central points where only gar-
dens and farms then existed; and
their plans were a wise provision for
a not distant future. Under the
direction of President Washington,
and with the aid and encouragement
of Secretary Jefferson, Peter Charles
L'Enfant, a yoxmg French engineer,
deliberately drew the map of an
entirely new capital city designed to
accommodate a population one-third
greater than was comprised in Paris
at that date. In that plan no ele-
ment of civic convenience, beauty, or
adornment was lacking. The entire
city was regarded as a unit, and that
unit was to be developed in a form
not surpassed by any existing city.
Upon a rectilinear system of streets
L'Enfant imposed diagonal avenues
of stately width, convei^ng upon
focal points designed to be the loca-
tion of unportant public buildii^,
statues, or monuments commemorat-
mg historic events. The Capitol
and the President's House were con-
nected by a spacious park, and axial
relations between the two structures
were developed; every other build-
ing necessary for national uses was
provided for; and canals, cascades,
and fountains were located with ref-
erence to existing springs and water-
courses. This comprehenave and
magnificent plan, designed for an
area which tiien consisted of wide
swamps and wooded hills, became
the laughing-stock ahke of foreign
traveler and American citizen. But
fortunately the foundations were laid
broad and deep by means of the
24 PLAN OF CHICAGO
donation of the lands necessary for streets, avenues, and parks. Fortunately the plan was
adopted and the streets, avenues, public squares, and circles were fixed; and although the
development of the city during three-quarters of a century was slow, yet the rapid increase in
e ?I,AZA AND ONION STATION, WA3HINOTON. BEGUN IN I
The captioD under iUustratioi
"Mall "in place of "Hall."
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES 25
wealth and power that foUowed the ending of
the Civil War found Washington ready and
waiting for the improvements which have lifted
it from a straggling, ill-kept town, into one
of the beautiful and stately capitals of the
world.
Before the opening of the twentieth cen-
tury, Washington had begun to expand over
the surroimding country; and there imfortu-
nately the L'Enfant plan stopped short. More-
over, within the city there had been perversions
of the plan; and there had also been additions
to the park area awaiting development. Con-
gress dealt in part with the difficulties by
. extending the L'Enfant plan of streets and
avenues over the entire District of Columbia;
and in 1901 the task of preparing a report on
the development of the park system of the
Federal territory and the placing of public
buildings was committed to an expert com-
mission. As Haussmann aimed in large part to
carry out the work that had been planned by
the architects of Louis XIV., so the Senate
Park Conunission sought to re-establish and
reanimate the plans of L'Enfant, which had
the sanction of Washii^on and JeflEerson. In
spite of much opposition on the part of those
who regard only the present, and take no
XXV should read
thou^t for future advancement, the new
plans have been carried to such a point
that their general lines are well established,
and already works to cost nearly $50,-
000,000 are in progress, each one of which
strengthens the hold of the general scheme.'
The plans for the improvement of
Washington were prepared by the same
bands that guided ^e artistic development
of the World's Columbian Exposition in
Chicago. The dream city on Lake Mich-
igan, people said, should take on enduring
form in the capital of the nation. Then as
the Washington plans fired the imagination
■ The Impnivement of the Park STStem of the Dis-
trict of Columbia; LVII. Congress. Fint Staaioa; Senate
Rqiort No. i66.
XXvm. CLEVELAND CROUP PLAN.
Mew looking towaids the Lake from the pnqiosecl ci
XXX. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE FLAN OF DEVELOFHEKT POK SAN FRANCISCO.
Hib new ibowB municipal center, boulcvwd system, and treatment of ■uirounding bilb as parka.
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES 27
of the American people, the cities throughout the country began to ask why they too should
not achieve whatever of beauty and convenience their situation and their civic pride would
allow. Among the first to feel the new impulse was Cleveland, a commercial city where at
the time the forces of democracy were having fullest play. Taki:^ advanti^ of the fact that
a Federal building, a city hall, and a public library must be constructed in the near future,
XXXI. PLANS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANILA, SUBMITTED TO THE PHILIPPINE COMUISSION BY D. H.
BURNHAU. 1906.
The essential elements cf this plan on the gorenunent center and system of proposed arteries ndiating from it, the rail-
wa; ttalion, and the sboi« riMd.
and that a railway station on the Lake front could not long be delayed, a commission of experts
was appointed to prepare a group-plan for the bcation of those structures, with appropriate land-
scape settings; and high-minded, public-spirited citizens who were behind the movement labored
imtil they brought harmony of action among the political agencies, and so placed the plans
beyond the risk of failure. The expense involved approximates $14,000,000 for public purposes,
and &om three to five millions additional for railway terminals, museums, and the like.
Boston has developed the most extensive park sjratem in America, at a cost of $33,000,000,
and is creating on the Charles River a tidal basin which bids fair to rival any similar work in Europe.
A state commission is now studying means to relieve congestion in the city, and to extend its c»m-
mercial facilities. New York is struggling with many isolated works of improvement spread over
28 PLAN OF CHICAGO
the broad domain of that city's activities; Baltimore is seeking to use the opportunity presented
by a great fire to introduce order and symmetry in her street system, and also to create a connected
park system; and the citizens of St. Louis have prepared and presented a city plan for
the grouping of municipal buildings, for an inner and an outer park system, for civic centers
cranpri^ng small parks and playgroimds, museums, branch hliraries, and like public buildings.'
San Francisco, even before the great earthquake and fire of April, 1906, was already working on
I
i: -
a comprehensive plan to promote, in every practical way, the beautifying of the streets, parks,
squares, and public places of the city; to bring to the attention of public ofiicials and the citizens
the best methods of instituting artistic municipal betterments; to stimulate the sentiment of civic
pride in the improvement and care of private property; and, in short, to make San Francisco a
more agreeable city in which to live. This latter movement resulted in a comprehensive city plan
which has been adopted by the general committee of citizens and by the Board of Supervisors.'
Philadelphia is cutting a great parkway from Logan Square to Fairmoimt Park, with the
expectation of extending the thoroughfare to the City Hall; is acquiring extensive additions to
its large parks; and is planning for the grouping of its present buildings. Minneapolis and St.
Paul have made common cause in the creation of parkways, and the last-named city is bent on
securing adequate approaches for the newly completed state capitol.* From Providence and
* A City Plan for St. Loub^ reports of the severs! committees appointed by the Executive Board of the Civic Lesgue to
' Report on a Plan for San Franrisco; by D. H. Bumham, assisted by Edward H. Bennett; presented to the Mayor and Boaid
of Supervisors by the Association for the Improvement and Adornment of San Francisco; edited by Edward F. O'Day, 1905.
* A comprehensive summary of the progress of municipal improvement in the United States is to be found in ChantUi and
The CommoHt for February, 1908.
CITY PLANNING IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES 29
Hartford in the East, to Kansas City and on to Seattle in the West, the city planning is in full
progress. The South also has felt the new impulse. Annapolis, the capital of Maryland, was
laid out on lines strikingly similar to those embodied in Sir Christopher Wren's scheme for Lon-
don; and the plan of Williamsburg, the colonial capital of Virginia, suggests the locations
adopted for the Capitol and White House at Washington; so that the new plans for Roanoke,
Vurginia, seem like the discovery of a lost art.
No sooner had the United States come into the possession of the Philippine Islands than
the War Department set about adapting the capital city of Manila to the changed conditions
brought about by the influx of Americans, who are used to better conditions of living than had
prevailed in those islands. While fully recognizing the value of the historic public buildings, the
Department undertook to have prepared a plan for connecting thoroughfares, open spaces, drive-
wa)rs and promenades which should provide adequate facilities for transportation, improved
sanitation, and opportunities for those particular kinds of recreation which the climate invites.
As a result the expansion which is coming as the result of American occupation, will proceed on
comprehensive lines. Moreover, the necessity of providing a summer capital for the rulers of our
new possessions has led to the creation on the hills of Bagnio of a city laid out on a plan similar
to the plan made by L'Enfant for the city of Washington, in that it provides for such public build-
ings as may be needed for government oflBces, for the service of the city itself, and for the health-
fulness, convenience, and recreation of the people; and all these functions are so arranged as to
make a imified and orderly city. Thus without additional expense, but merely by taking thought
for the future, the two capitals of the Philippines, even in their ph)rsical characteristics, will
represent the power and dignity of this nation.
It has been seen that as peace permits the expansion of cities regardless of means of defense
against outside foes, and as commerce enriches the people, population increases with such rapidity
as to create demands for enlarged facilities for circulation throughout the city; and that these
demands are so insistent that they must be met, no matter at what cost. Also, that those cities
which have made ample provision for future growth have saved largely in money while at the
same time they have accomplished much in the way of convenience and orderliness. Thus it
has been well said that Paris is a unified city; whereas London is a collection of towns. More-
over, it is to be noted that throughout the civilized world there is a great forward movement in
the direction of transforming cities to adapt them to the improved conditions of living which the
people everywhere are demanding, and which, moreover, they feel that they have the power to
enforce. As a part of this movement arises the impulse to express in concrete form the feeling
of loyalty to and pride in the city; and this feeling finds expression in parks and pleasure grounds,
in monuments and fiine public buildings, in institutions of art and learning, and in hospitals and
other means of alleviating the ills of mankind. Furthermore, there has arisen the conception
of the city as an organic whole, each part having well-defijaed relations with every other part;
and the expression of this idea is now seen to be the highest aim oi the city-builder.
Each city differs from every other city in its ph)rsical characteristics and in the nature of
its opportunities, so that the development of every city must be along individual lines. This
very fact allows full scope for the development of that peculiar charm which, wherever discovered
and developed irresistibly draws to that city people of discrimination and taste, and at the same
time begets a spirit of loyalty and satisfaction on the part of the citizens.
It is not to be expected that the people of Chicago will stand still while the movement for
30 PLAN OF CHICAGO
better civic conditions is sweeping over the whole civilized world; or that the stirrings of the new
impulse that have begun among this people will be suffered to die out, without accomplishing the
possibilities so abundantly offered to make this city pre-eminent among commercial cities.
The experience of other cities both ancient and modem, both abroad and at home, teaches
Chicago that the way to true greatness and continued pro^terity lies in making the city (X)q-
venient and healthful for the ever-increasing numbers of its citizens; that civic beauty satisfies a
craving of human nature so deep and so compelling that people will travel far to find and enjoy
it; that the orderly arrangement of fine buildii^ and monuments brings fame and wealth to
the city; and that the cities which truly exercise dominion rule by reason of their appeal to the
higher emotions of the human mind. The problem for Chicago, therefore, resolves itself into
making the best use of a situation, the central location and resources of which have already
drawn together millions of people, and are clearly destined to assemble many times that number;
and planning for that civic development which promotes present content and insures permanence.
XXXni. FLOK£MC£, ITALY.
This silbouette at towers is cbaracteristic at Italian towns in the
Middle Ages. From La Toscane.
XXXIV. CmCAOO- DUGXAM OF LOCATION WITH REGARD TO THE SEVEN CENTRAL STATES.
CHAPTER III
CHICAGO THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST: REASONS FOR EXPECTING CONTINUOUS
GROWTH: THE SUBXniBS: A LAKESIDE DRIVEWAY ALONG LAKE MICHIGAN: CONNECTIONS
BETWEEN OUTLYING CITIES; THE BUILDING OF GOOD ROADS
HICAGO is the metropolis of the Middle West, a term popu-
larly applied to the area known a century ago as the Territory
Northwest of the Ohio River. No section of the coxmtry, except
New Ei^land, has so distinct' a history. Conquered by Virginia
troops at the very time when the Colonies were wresting their
mdependence from Great Britain, and held for the United States
by the sagacity of Fi&nkUn and the pertinacity of John Jay when
the treaty of 1783 was negotiated, the Old Northwest was the first
territorial acquiation of the new republic. Then, while the
British still held the posts and only Indians and fur-traders roamed
its forests, the Congress of the Confederation gave to the North-
west Territory in the Ordinanace of 1787 a charter which con-
tained two provisions that during the years of development exercised a unifying force comparable
only to that brought about by the extension of Christianity and the civil law during the Middle
31
COTTONWOOD, NEAR CmCAOa
Height, 117 A.; diuoeter, lofL
32 PLAN OF CHICAGO
Ages, — the prohibition of slavery, and the encouragement of free popular education. The con-
tinuous struggle to preserve human freedom against all the forces determined to extend slavery
to the fertile fields of the new West, and the establishment of schools and coU^es supported
from a public treasury, brought about common aims and aspirations. When the nation
engaged in the struggle for its very life, this region fumi^ied the battle-ground for the states-
men; and when war came, both the leader of the people and the commander in the field were the
embodiment of the spirit of the Middle West
The domain over which Chicago holds primacy is larger than Austria-Hungary, or Ger-
many, or France; three thousand miles of navigable waters form a portion of its boimdaries;
the rivers flowing into the Great Lakes, the Mississippi, and the Ohio, give access to every part
of the interior; the level prairies invite the railroad and the canal buOder; the large proportion
of arable land makes possible the support of an enormous population; and the abimdance and
range of the products of earth and forest furnish the materials for traffic. It is no wonder, there-
fore, that the growth of the Middle West in population and in wealth has been phenomenal;
and that at the point of convenience a city of the first order has sprung up.
During the second half of the nineteenth century the population of Chicaco increased from
thirty thousand to two millions of people. To-day all conditions point to continued gains. The
dajrs of chance and imcertainty are past. The days of doubtful ventures are gone, and the haz-
ards of new fortunes. The elements which make for the greatness of the city are known to be
permanent; and men realize that the time has now come to build confidentiy on foimdations
already laid.
The growth of the city has been so rapid that it has been impossible to plan for the economi-
cal disposition of the great influx of people, surging like a hiunan tide to spread itself wherever
opportunity for profitable labor offered place. Thoughtful people are appalled at the results
of progress; at the waste in time, strength, and money which congestion in city streets begets;
at the toll of lives taken by disease when sanitary precautions are neglected; and at the frequent
outbreaks against law and order which result from narrow and pleasureless lives. So that while
the keynote of the nineteenth century was expansion, we of the twentieth century find that oirr
dominant idea is conservation. The people of Chicago have ceased to be impressed by rapid
growth or the great size of the city. What they insist asking now is. How are we living? Are
we in reality prosperous ? Is the city a convenient place for business ? It is a good labor market
in the sense that labor is sufficientiy comfortable to be efficient and content? Will the coming
generation be able to stand the nervous strain of city life ? When a competence has been accumu-
lated, must we go elsewhere to enjoy the fruits of independence ? If the city does not become
better as it become bigger, shall not the defect be remedied ? These are questions that will not be
brushed aside. They are the most pressing questions of our day, and everywhere men are
anxiously seeking the answers.
The remark is often heard, that if, after the great fire of 1871, the people had realized what
the future growth of the city would be, they would have saved a vast amount of money by plan-
ning for a convenient city. The imdaimted courage with which a debt-burdened community
of three himdred and fifty thousand people then set about rebuilding then: city must absolve them
from the charge of lack of foresight. To-day there is no excuse for the second city in the United
States with its destiny made manifest and its wealth seciu^, if it shall now fail to keep pace with
the march of progress that is gathering into its ranks the progressive cities of the world.
THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST
33
Chicago is now facing the momentous fact that fifty years hence, when the children of to-day
are at the height of their power and influence, this city will be larger than London: that is, larger
than any existing city. Not even an approximate estimate can be ventured as to just how many
millions the city will then contain. Mr. Bion J. Arnold, after a careful discussion of the problem
of the increase that may be expected,
T-r
reaches the conclusion that if the na-
tional and local conditions governing
the population of Chicago shall average
in the future exactly as in the past the
population in 1952 will be 13,250,000.
Mr. Arnold hesitates to predict such
an increase in population, just as the
most optimistic rebuilder in 1871 would
have hesitated to predict two millions
in thirty years. Yet it is apparent. that
the tendency is towards city life. " When
the Pacific Coast shall have a popula-
tion of twenty millions," prophesies.
James J. Hill, "Chicago will be the
largest city in the world." The com-
pletion of the Panama Canal, bringing
about a more rapid development of the
Mississippi Valley; the opening of China
and Japan and the Far East to American
trade and manufactures; the expansion
of the wheat-producing area in the
North ; and the conversion of the desert
lands of the West into arable acres by
means of irrigation — all are factors in
the growth dlf Chicago.
Moreover, city life has attractions
that make a strong appeal to human
nature. Opportimities for large success,
for wealth and power and social consid-
eration, for amusement and instruction,
for the increase of knowledge and the
cultivation of taste, are greater for the oSrmoMT, iMt. .r oommhoim. ou» ©r onkm«o
average person in the city than in the
country. The city, therefore, is con-
stantly drawing from the country the
young men and women of ambition and self-reliance, who are lured thither by the great prizes
which in a democracy are open to the competition of all.
When Chicago is adverted to as the metropoh's of the Middle West, the meaning is that
throughout this area Chicago newspapers circulate, and Chicago banks hold the banking reserves;
XXXV. CHICAGO, AND DIAGRAM OF LAKE MICHIGAN.
Proposed roadway to connect all the towns along the shores ci
the Lake.
34 PLAN OF CHICAGO
that in Chicago are the chief offices of the large industrial enterprises, and the market for their
products. New ideas in government, in civic improvement, in the creation and maintenance of
parks, and pleasure groimds are apt to appear first in the metropolis, spreading thence to the
surrotmding coimtry. On high-days and holidays the great city alliures the people from the
neighboring parts, and sends its own people on the water or into the coimtry for rest and refresh-
ment, so that there is a constant interchange of comers and goers. In the art schools of Chicago
more than four thousand students are gathered ; the theaters draw audiences from long distances,
and in music Chicago is attaining a worthy position. In Chicago great political conventions
are held, party policies are determined, and from the party headquarters here national campaigns
are conducted.
It is not in the spirit of boasting that these facts are stated, but rather to show the responsi-
bility which the very pre-eminence of the city imposes, and the necessity for establishing and
maintaining those standards of commercial integrity, of taste, and of knowledge which are the
prerequisites of lasting success, and the only real satisfaction of the human mind. The constant
struggle of civilization is to know and to attain the highest good ; and the city which brings about
the best conditions of life becomes the most prosperous.
While the influence of Chicago extends throughout a domain larger than any European
country except Russia, there exist between this city and outlying towns within a certain radius
^vital and almost organic relations. The steam and the trolley railways and the automobile have
opened to the city workers all varieties of life, and have made possible to a large proportion of the
people a habitation amid what might be healthful and attractive surroimdings. Unfortunately,
however, conditions near any rapidly growing city are apt to be both squalid and ugly.
Occasionally a suburb grows up at some sightly point on the Lake shore, or gathers about
some educational institution; or a group of people engaged in a common enterprise select a pic-
turesque spot on river banks and there build homes which, by theu: very relations one to another,
indicate neighborliness. In each of these instances a commimity of feeling pervades the place
and finds expression in well-shaded streets, broad lawns, and homelike architecture. Too
often, however, the suburb is laid out by the speculative real estate agent who exerts himself to
make every dollar invested turn into as many dollars as possible. Human ingenuity contrives
to crowd the maximum number of building lots into the minimum space ; if native trees exist
on the land they are ruthlessly sacrificed. Then the speculative builder takes matters in hand
and in a few months the narrow, grassless streets are lined with rows of cheaply constructed dwell-
ings, and with ugly apartment houses occupying the more desirable, sites. In ten years or less the
dwellings are dropping to pieces; and the apartment houses, having lost theu: newness, become
rookeries.
This manner of things is as true of London or of Rome as of Chicago; it is the rule wher-
ever population increases rapidly, because human nature is alike the world over. England, how-
ever, is remed)ring this evil by means of town-planning laws executed by a central board; and is
endeavoring to regulate the width and direction of streets, and to provide for sufficient open spaces
for the health and convenience of the people. After the English manner, a commission should
be appointed to lay out all that territory adjacent to the city of Chicago which is likely to become
incorporated in the city at least during the next decade. The plans should be so drawn that as
subdivisions are platted the new streets shall bear definite relations to the plan of the city; that
these streets shall be of suitable width, either for traffic or for residence purposes as the case may
THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST 35
be; that building restrictions shall be made to prevent depredation of property by the advent
of undearable classes of structures, or the erection of towering apartment houses which keep
light and aii from adjoining property and from the street.
Moreover, adequate provision should be made for public and semi-public buildings. In
each town plan spaces should be marked out for public schools, and each school should have
X3DCVL NAMCY, FRANCE. VIEW OF THE PLACE STANISLAS,
The princip*] avenues lead into It; a typical arraiigement of public iquares in small sunounding towns.
about it ample playgrounds, so that during all the year the school premises shall be the children's
center, to which each child will become attached by those ties of remembrance that are restrain-
ing influences throughout life. Next to the school, the public library should have place; and
here again the landscape setting ^ould be generous and the situation commanding. The town-
hall, the engine-bouse with its lookout tower, the police station with its a)urt of justice, and the
post-office, all naturally form a group of buildings that may be located about a common or public
square, so as to form the suburban civic center.
36 PLAN OF CHICAGO
There was a time in the older portions of the country when church and churchyard
occupied the chief place in the town; and to-day enterpriang real estate dealers find it to their
advanta^ to give to one or more religious denominations building sites. But so numerous are
the sects into which Christianity has divided Itself, and so diverse are the nationalities to be
provided for, that the suburban church building rarely offers to the eye any reUef from the
monotonous ugliness of the airless street
which it helps to frame. Also, the old
churchyards, with their serried ranks of
slate headstones, their C3rpresse& and
weeping willows, and their rows of
tombs, made a direct appeal to the
deepest feelings of the human heart;
but the disorder of the modem town
cemetery would seem to carry the idea
of turbulence even to the grave itself.
Perhaps, in the coming times, the spirit
of unity will draw people together in
religion as well as in business, and such
a syndication of rel^ous effort will
prevail as shall find expression in per-
manent buildings devoted to the moral
advancement of all the people. The
day of the ^lendid cathedral may never
dawn for this country, but certainly in
every conmiunity there will be buildings
lor the help of the unfortunate, and the amelioration of those desperate conditions which form
the reverse side of great prosperity.
Then, too, there are the various railway stations and the electric lighting and power buildings,
semi-pubhc structures which should be treated in such manner as to present a smiling face to the
public. A well-arranged grass plot, a few shrubs, and a little regular attention will give to the
plainest building a setting that, like a soft answer, will often turn away wrath from a public-
service corporation.
The question of creating pleasit^ conditions in a suburb is not primarily a matter of money,
but of thoughtfxU co-operation. Even the real estate agent is beginning to disoiver that by cutting
off somewhat from the depth of his lots he can get park space that will make his land more avail-
able; and by a combination treatment he can secure for a group of houses an enjoyable area of
green grass, to take the place of the narrow and ill-kept back yards which are at once undghtly
and imsanitary. In every town a public-improvement commission should be formed to bring
about the most orderly conditions within the town itself, and especially to act in co-operation with
similar bodies in neighboring towns so as to secure harmonious, connected, and continuous
improvement.
If we take arbitrarily a radius of sixty miles from the heart of Chicago and count all the ter-
ritory in the semi-circumference as having definite relations with the city, the distance from center
to circumference is no greater than the present suburban electric lines extend, or the automobilist
K^.-3»^Eiaii«;iSj^
i.n~K--war «"'»■" ""'■
THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST 37
may cover in a drive of two hours. The traffic over the ways leading to and from the city is
aheady large and steady; and the near-by towns and villages abng these thoroughfares may
(»nfidently look forward to the day when the tide of Chicago's growth will envelop them, and
ultimately incorporate them in the city. Hence two considerations become all-important: first,
the improvement of the thoroughfares, not only those leading to the great dty, but also those
which now form the connections between towns and which ultimately will appear as convenient
diagonals within the city itself; and secondly, the arrangement of the streets of the town, together
with provision for space for the public and semi-public buildings, and sufficient park and play-
ground area, obtained while land is comparatively inexpensive.
The suburban movement of population will necessarily increase as the ground and buildings
within the business area of the city become so valuable for commercial purposes as to preclude
their use for dwellings. In the dty of London a thousand policemen are detailed to guard the
five thousand and more buildings left entirely empty each night. More than one-fifth of all the
buildings in the "city" are thus left vacant at night and on Sunday. Moreover, London, in
order to carry out improvements made to prevent congestion, finds it necessary to remove and
rehouse the working-people who are displaced by tearing down buildings in the over-crowded
quarters. On the site of the old Millbank prison four thousand persons removed at the time of
the Holbom to Strand improvement were rehoused in convenient new dwellings buUt by the
municipality; and more than fifty thousand people have been displaced and reinstated by reason
of the various improvements. Thus the dty, while drawing from the farms and small towns,
also sends out swarms to be
housed under more wholesome
conditions.
These suburban resi-
dents are dependent on the
city for a livelihood, and
either directly or indirectly
pay the taxes that support
the municipality. They are
vitally interested in adequate
and convenient means of
transportation, in the protec-
tion of life and property,
and in well-ordered home sur-
roundings. Thus it hap-
pens naturally that as the city
grows the functions of the
various governing bodies ate
extended over areas outside
the city limits. The admin-
istrative county of London has an area of but 118 square miles; but the greater London
over which the metropolitan and dty police have jurisdiction comprises 693 square miles, and
indudes a population of two millions outside of the coxmty. The water-board and the sanitary
authorities also have authority far beyond county limits.
38 PLAN OF CHICAGO
Boston, first among American cities, realized the advantages of co-operation between the
great city and outlying districts. In 1889 the Massachusetts legislatiure created a metropolitan
sewage conmiission, and later a metropolitan park commission, with jurisdiction over thirty-seven
distinct municipalities; and to-day it is proposed to extend police jurisdiction and fire protection
over substantially the same area. The Boston park system, developed through the co-operation
of these various towns and cities, is famed for its beauty and variety. Beginning with the
great ocean beach at Revere, where on a smnmer day one himdred and fifty thousand persons
enjoy the bathing privileges, broad parkways sweep aroimd the city, enveloping on then: way
great stretches of fen and lofty hills, imtil again salt water is reached at Nantasket, where another
bathing beach as large as the first furnishes refreshment and recreation. Again, it is not without
effect on the people of the outlying towns that Massachusetts Avenue keeps its name as it traverses
Boston, Cambridge, Arlington, Lexington, and Concord; and that Beacon Street maintains its
integrity from Boston through Brookline to Newton. Throughout the entire region one and the
same spirit prevails — a spirit of love for and loyalty to the city set on three hills, which dominates
the entire region. It would be no more difiicult to secure the co-operation of Illinois, Wisconsin,
and Indiana in planning for the continuous development of the Lake shore than it has been for
New York and New Jersey to combine for the preservation of the Palisades of the Hudson and the
development of their park possibilities.^
A highway should be built from Wilmette along the western shore of Lake Michigan to
Milwaukee; and even where this road runs through intermediate towns it should be located as
close as possible to the edge of the water. Such a highway should be kept somewhat back of the
sand beaches and a little above them, a retaining wall being built to separate the road from the
beach. The planting should be of trees and evergreens hardy enough to stand the exposure.
A few miles north of Waukegan is a sand waste on which grows a dwarf juniper, the effect of
which on the sand banks is that of moss of dark rich color. This could be used effectively
along the shore. A similar treatment might be adopted for the edge of the ¥^ter much of the
way aroimd Lake Michigan.
It needs no argument to show that direct highways leading from the outlying towns to
Chicago as the center are a necessity for both; and it is also apparent that suburban towns
should be coimected with one another in the best maimer. Isolated communities lack those
social and conunercial advantages which arise from easy commimication one with another.
A diagram has therefore been drawn for the use of the public bodies in their study of the rela-
tions of a particular town with other towns, and to suggest the locations and routes that may
be followed. This diagram is not put forward as a complete study of the roads, but as a
general scheme, the large details of which can be relied on and safely followed. The solid
black lines are routes already open and in use as public highways; the dotted lines indicate
proposed connection links not yet in existence. It is believed that the building of these roads
will not be difiicult or unduly expensive for any given township, as very little land will have
to be acquired. The existing highways will suffice for the present, and the burden of the
improvement will faU lightly on each township.'
' The Palisades Interstate Park Commission was organized in 1900. Mr. J. P. Morgan, the honorary pre^dent of the American
Scenic and Historic Preservation Society, ^ve $123,500; the state of New Jersey, $55,000; and New York appropriated $4io,ooa
With these resources the Palisades Commission has acquired most of the palisades honting on the Hudson, from Fort Lee, N. J., to
Piermont, N. Y.
' The commercial value of good roads was recognized by Massachusetts a quarter of a century ago, and to-day every portion of the
commonwealth is provided with a network oi excellent highways built under the direction of a highway commission at the joint expense
THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST 39
Pending the creation of a metropolitan commission for the treatment of the entire area,
the public authorities or the improvement associations of each town should confer with their
neighbors and agree on the routes of connecting highways; also upon the width and arrange-
ment of roadways, sidewalks, planting-spaces and drainage, and the varieties of trees and shrubs
to be used for shade and ornament.
In laying out routes, no bad kinks or sharp turns should be tolerated. The English roads,
though better as to siurface-finish and drainage, do not compare with the roads of France as to
trend and direction; because in England there are so many abrupt and "blind" twistings, which
are generally avoided in France. Liberality in road building now will be repaid many fold in
the future. The aim should be to adopt the best routes, the best curves and turns, and the most
perfect construction known at the present day.* It is the opinion of all experts on road building
that taking a period of ten years, a good bed and surface carefully maintained all the time will
cost less in the aggregate than the very best bed and surface if neglected. We need perfect main-
tenance, and organization constantly kept sharp and efifective, rather than expensive first con-
struction. Nevertheless, the best original construction will be found economical in the end.
Automobiles have introduced on the roads a new sort of wear and tear, as their broad pneumatic
tires, carrying great weights and moving at high speeds, press into the softer spots and suck up
loose material. The result is pockmarks or rough places, which destroy the best of roads con-
structed according to the old-methods road building.'
While good highways are of great value to the terminal cities, they are of even greater value
to the outlying towns, and of greatest value to the farming conununities through which they pass.
Grood roads add an element of better living to an agricultiual community; they afford ready
conunimication with the city and reduce materially the cost of handling farm products of all
kinds; and also they promote commimication between farms. These state highways should
invariably include a work-road for heavy loads, and also a pleasure drive. The two should be
separated l)y a grassway and there should be grass plots at the sides, and not less than three rows
of trees should be planted. The country schools should be on these highwajrs.
At the earliest possible date measures should be taken for beginning what may be termed
the outer encircling highway. Beginning at Kenosha on the north, this thoroughfare would run
of state and town; and now the work of tree planting along the roads is in progress. In Los Angeles County, California, $3,500,000
has been raised bv a bond issue for la3dng out and improving highways — so thoroughly do the people appreciate the attractions which
good roads have for the tourists who, as in Massachusetts, are a source of income to the community.
In Illinois the State Highway Conmiission has built two so-called experimental roads in the vicinity of Chicago, one at Wheaton
and the other at Naperville. On the road at the latter town, the conunission has tried both limestone and slag macadam, and also
sravel treated with tar and with oil. A movement is on foot to connect the Wheaton road with Chicago by a direct highway built
m a substantial manner. In a letter dated October 20, 1908, Mr. A. N. Johnson, the State Highway Engineer, says: **It is possible
that some attempt will be made at the coming session of the le^lature to secure means to start the construction oi highwavs. Pub-
lic sentiment in general, however, is somewhat backward, and I miagine will require bnger time than is available by the next legislature
to get to such a point that any considerable sum of money will be for&coming, such as will be necessary to take this work up properly."
" For genc^ information on road building there is no better reference docimient than the paper read by Mr. John Alvord some years
ago before Sie Commercial Club. In general, die conclusion of Mr. Alvord and of others seems to be that there are many specifica-
tions, any of which will produce good surfaces, but that durability and lasting value in any case, must finally depend on maintenance.
No road yet invented will stand up without constant care and attention being bestowed upon it, care which should begin almost as
soon as the surface is first finished.
' No roads constructed with smooth surfaces have stood up under heavy automobile travel, except those made of asphaltum
and those made like the Sheridan Road in Buena Park. The last-mentioned road has gone through two seasons of very hard usage, and
although little repairing has been done, it seems unchanged as to its surface. In one section of England considerable stretches of the
same sort of construction have been in service for some time, and with the same result as at Buena Park. In France two 3rears ago,
the main road from Versailles to Chartres was in first-class condition; going over the same road in June, 1907, it was found to be
almost impassible, the wear upon it having come from automobiles; and yet this highway was constructed with care, on the best old-
fashioned macadam formula. Asphaltum roads can be made that will not chip up or pockmark, but the surfacing must be done so
that it will incorporate with the mass beneath, and not rolled on as an outer layer. A very moderate speed limit for automobiles will
keep roads in good repair, for it is the high speed of the machines that is so destructive to roadbeds.
40 PLAN OF CHICAGO
through Pleasant Prairie, Trevor, and Wilmot to McHeniy, thus passing through the northern
lake r^on. Here are the headwaters of the Fox River, lying in natural scenery of much beauty;
bete too are a large number of lakes and waterways surrounded by hills, the whole forming an
extensive parklike territory that
will become an important ad-
junct of Chicago life when prop-
erly improved, and when suit-
able connections are secured.
Beyond McHenry, this
outer encircling highway con-
tinues on through Woodstock,
Marengo, Genoa, Sycamore, De
Kalb, Cortland, Sandwich, Mill-
ington, and Morris; thence it
nms be^de or near the Kanka-
kee River through Wilmington,
Kankakee, Momence, Shelby,
and Maysville, the scenery along
the route being very interesting,
and much of it romantically
XXXIX. CHICAGO. THE DES PLAINES RIVER; VIEW NEAR UADISON beaUtlful. FrOm MaySVillc the
STREET BRIDGE. , . , . , _./ .. ,
From the Report Of (he Special Park Commission. highway bendS north through
Valparaiso to Lake Michigan
at Michigan City; or by another route from Maysville through La Crosse, Wellsboro, and La
Porte to Michigan City, the total length from Kenosha around to Michigan City being ap-
proximately two hundred and fifty miles. It is obvious that such a highway, properly built and
adorned, would become a strong influence in the development of the social and material pros-
perity of each of the cities involved, and of all the fanning communities along the entire route.
The encircling highway next inside the outer one above described begins at Waukegan and
passes through LibertyviUe to Lake Zurich; thencx by two routes, one through Harrington to
Elgin, the other bending around to skirt the Fox River near Algonquin and Dundee to Elgin,
and on through St. Charles, Geneva, and Batavia to Aurora. From Aurora the highway con-
tinues to Plainfield, where it crosses the Du Page River, thence through Joliet, and by one route
through Manhattan, Monee, Eagle Lake, Cedar Lake, Crown Point, and Hobart, to Lake Michi-
gan; and by another route from Joliet, through Chicago Heights, Griffith, and Tolleston to Gary,
on the Lake. The highway will be approximately one hundred and forty miles long, and nearly
the whole of the northern part of it is very picturesque. The next highway proposed goes
through a fine, rolling country west of the Des Plaines River. Beginning at Winnetka, it
runs through Des Plaines, Elmhurst, and Hinsdale to Blue Island, whence the route divides mto
two routes, one running through Harvey and Hammond to Gary, and the other running from
Blue Island to Robey, on the Lake.
The fourth of the encircling highways begins at Evanston, and passes through Niles or Des
Plaines, and along the Des Plaines River to Riverside; all this part of the way, being wooded on
the borders of the water, is very beautiful in its present condition. From Riverside, this high-
IKKNOSHA
MARI
CHICAGO
CiKNKI^AL DIAGRAM 0\ FAIKRIOR
hic;h\v W S
ka;circ:i inc and hadiaiixc. from
THF C:iTY
.SC \l i-
c;f\c)v
i A ( POs'it.
OOrVMOMT, iMt, av COMMCIICIAI. CUM O^ OHtCAOO
XL. CHICAGO. GENERAL DL\GRAM OF EXTERIOR HIGHWAYS ENCIRCLING. OR RADIATING FROM, THE CITY.
All the arteries composing the system without the city limits exist, except where shown in dotted lines. City limits shown in red tint; riven
and other waterways in blue.
ir::3p^pssiinin;i;c^^^
THE METROPOLIS OF THE MIDDLE WEST 41
way runs through Chicago Ridge to Robey or Blue Island, and from thence to the Lake, over
routes already mentioned.
It will be noted that the diagram provides not only for encircling highways, but also for
Foads running directly to the heart of Chicago from every important town or village. And it
will also be noted that nearly every stretch of roadway shown on the diagram already exists as a
more or less satisfactory country road, the dotted lines indicating proposed changes or links.
The system as outlined is complete, and it meets every present demand of road building for such
extensive environs as those of Chicago. It is confidently believed that in the course of the next
few years every mile of these highways will be improved in the best manner, and that thus
Chicago ultimately will come to possess a network of surface thoroughfares equal to the require-
ments of future generations.
A satisfactory method of running highways is to parallel the railroads. The work-road
should be next to the right-of-way; then should come the carriage driveway. Where electric
railways exist, or are projected on thoroughfares, the most agreeable treatment is found in setting
apart for the tracks a space which may be grassed over and well shaded. Besides adding to
the comfort of the passengers, the uninterrupted use of the tracks permits high speed and there-
by saves time. The improvement of the three roadways as a unit, with the appropriate planting,
would give a charm to suburban travel where now there is none, while at the same time expenses
of maintenance would be lessened. As a rule, the creation of highways along railroads involves
only the bare cost of inexpensive land and the building of the road. The railroads are in them-
selves great diagonals; and by
following them the shortest Unes
between important points are
secured. Then, too, the right-
of-way traversed by the tracks
should be improved. The
drainage should be perfect, so
that pools of stagnant water
shall not be an offense to the eye
and a menace to health. The
unsightly billboard should be
replaced by shrubbery or by a
wall; and the entire space should
be free from the litter of papers
or the accumulations of dirt
and ashes.
The suburban resident is
vitally interested in the means
of communication bet^veen his xu. ctncACo. the shore of lake uichigan; view at the
, 1 t ■ I e 1. • NORTH UNE OP COOK COUNTY.
home and his place of business. p^ j^^ H,^^ ^ the Special Park Comini»ion.
If his morning and his evening
ride are made on the steam railway, he is interested not only in pas^ng through pleasant
scenes on his way to and from Chicago, but he is concerned also in having the railway station in
his suburban town conveniently located, constructed simply but artistically, and placed amid
42 PLAN OF CHICAGO
surroundings which in themselves are harmonious and appropriate. A well-kept lawn, with
shrubbery shutting out the necessarily unpleasant feature of a steam railway station; a sheltered
platform well lighted at night, and a commodious station, architecturally in good taste — these
accessories go a long way towards mitigating the nerve strain which every business man feels and
from which too many suffer.
The electric railroads, with their frequent cars passing one's very door, have done a vast
deal to bind the outlying towns fiimly to the central city. More than this, they have inx)moted
neighborliness among people of adjoining towns, and have broken up the isolation of farm life.
These roads now strive to obtain private rights-of-way, excepting where for the convenience of
passengers they pass through city streets; and the same observations as to good order along the
routes and at the terminals that appertain to steam roads apply equally to trolley lines.
The rapidly increasing use of the automobile promises to carry on the good work begun by
the bicycle in the days of its popularity in promoting good roads and reviving the roadside inn
as a place of rest and refreshment. With the perfection of this machine, and the extension of its
use, out-of-door life is promoted, and the pleasures of suburban life are brought within the reach
of multitudes of people who formerly were condemned to pass their entu^ time in the city.
While the people generally have yet to be brought to appreciate the value of well-constructed
highways, the imiversal experience is that where a stretch of good road has been buUt the saving
in time and money is so great and so apparent that the movement gathers force rapidly, and cid-
minates only when all noain lines have been completed. Land adjacent to such roads increases
in value and finds a readier sale; the farmer is no longer cut oS from his market, and often he
finds it possible to lessen the number of horses he keeps. The actual economies which the good
road allows far exceed the increase in taxes necessary to meet the bond issue, and life on the farm
becomes more profitable as well as more agreeable.
ZLIL VtBW OP LAKE ZUKICH, HXINOIS.
XLUL CHICAGO. WINTER VIEW OP GRANT PARK AND THE PROPOSED
HARBOR, LOOKING BAST.
From the origiiwl sketch br E. H. Bennett.
CHAPTER IV
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM: THE MOVEMENT FOR PARK EXTENSION: PLAYGROUNDS:
OUTLYING PARK SYSTEMS IN LONDON, PARIS, BERLIN, VIENNA, AND BOSTON: PROPOSED
TREATMENT OF THE LAKE MICHIGAN SHORE: AN OUTER PARK BELT
HICAGO, on becoming a city, chose for its motto Urbs in horto
— a city set in a garden. Such indeed it then was, with the
opalescent waters of the Lake at its front, and on its three sides
the boundless pmirie carpeted with waving grass bedecked with
brilliant wild flowers. The quick advance of commerce and
manufactures, the rapid building of rdhoads and factories, and
the hastily constructed homes of operatives crowded out nature's
parterres of flowers. Still the motto lingered in the minds of
men, and in 1839 the struggle began to secure for the fast-grow-
ing population park spaces which should at least recall the
gardens that of necessity had been sacrificed.
In the year mentioned, a half-square on Michigan Avenue, where the Public Library now
stands, comprised the entire park system of the city of Chicago. Three years later Washington
Square was added; then followed at intervals Jefferson, Union, Ellis, and Vernon parks, each
representii^ the public spuit of individuals rather than the foresight of the dty. In 1864 the
Common Council, having been awakened to the necessity of providing recreation places for the
growing multitudes of citizens, seciu^ a portion of the lands which later came to be named
Lincoln Park, and the sum of ten thousand dollars was appropriated for park improvement.
At first no effort was made to provide connections among the various parks; but in 1869 a
movement was started, by those whom the practical people of that day called dreamers, to realize
43
PHMW«MM
i w iiw KwwwwwiitjBwiBnmMuwajMiw gtgfvg'g^f^T^^
44 PLAN OF CHICAGO
the then half-forgotten and wholly disregarded motto, by framing the city of Chicago with a
garden of parks and boulevards, beginning at Lincoln Park on the north and connecting Himi-
•
boldt, Garfield, Douglas, Washington, and Jackson parks. The attempt succeeded; the Chi-
cago park system came to take second place among the park areas of the United States, and was
the pride and glory of the city. Substantially, park acquisition in Chicago halted there — thirty-
nine years ago. Second only to Philadelphia in 1880, Chicago has now dropped to the seventh
place in so far as park area is concerned; and when the relative density of population is taken
into consideration this city occupies the thirty-second place! At least half the population of
Chicago to-day live more than one mile from any large park, and in the congested sections of the
city there are nearly five thousand people to each acre of park space. The average for the entire
city is 590 persons to each acre of park. For health and good order there should be one acre of
park area for each himdred people.*
The seriousness of present conditions being generally realized, a movement to bring about
radical changes has already taken direction, and is fast gathering the force necessary to accom-
plish its ends. The state of Illinois has authorized the respective boards of park commissioners
to connect Grant Park with Lincoln Park on the north and with Jackson Park on the south, and
has granted the submerged lands along the Lake shore for that purpose, providing, however, that
in all cases the commissioners must reach an amicable understanding with the riparian owners,
the right of condemnation being withheld. Moreover, the state has also authorized cities, towns,
and villages to grant to park authorities the right to take and improve streets not more than a
mile in length without the consent of the abutting property owners, and to construct surface and
elevated ways and turn the same over to public park corporate authorities.'
In 1899 the Chicago City Coimcil created tiie Special Park Commission, at the same time
adopting resolutions recognizing the value of parks in preventing crime, promoting cleanliness,
and diminishing disease; also declaring the need of. greater area for parks, both large and small,
and providing for a systematic study of the present and future needs of the city in the matter
of parks and recreation groimds. In 1903, Cook Coimty having created a commission to secure
an outer belt of parks and boulevards, co-operation between the Special Park Commission and
the Outer Belt Commission was established.
At the instance of the Special Park Commission legislation has been enacted to enable the
several park authorities to locate parks and pleasure groimds, of not more than ten acres in extent,
in any portion of their respective districts, and to raise money by bond issues. On the South
Side seventeen new parks, with a total area of 671 acres have been acquired. A feature of these
small parks is the neighborhood-center building, provided with baths, gynmasia, refectory service,
club rooms, and reading rooms for the district served. These "clubhouses for the people," as
they are called, are in service both smnmer and winter. The outdoor swinmiing-pools and athletic
fields are in charge of expert directors furnished by the authorities. The aim of the commission-
ers is to improve the health and morals of the people, and to stimulate local pride and patriotism;
and the work has attracted international attention. The South Side expansion movement, now
nearing completion, will cost about seven million dollars.
In suggesting additions to the smaller parks, the principle has been followed of placing them,
as far as possible, on the proposed circuit boulevards. The intersections of these boulevards with
' Report of the Special Park Commiasion; Compiled by D wight Heald Perkins, 1904.
' See Acts of May 14, 1903; May a, 1907; April 19, 1879; June 21, 1895; May 25, 1907.
Elmhurat and S
Mt. Foreal Reserve
XLIV. CHICAGO. GENERAL MAP SHOWING TOPOGRAPHY, WATERWAYS.
The parks and parkways encircle ihe city; (tier are (daced in relation la the radiating arteries, and increase in area in propci
Calumet rivers, and the location of outlying townships. The elevation of ih
COMPLETE SYSTEM OF STREETS, BOin.EVARI>S. PARKWAYS. AND PASKS.
o their cliaULnce from Ihe ceater (green). Also showing railroads (red), the proposed harbors at the [souths of the Chicago and
tvi is shown by increasing depth of color (orange), from the center of the city.
* t. ,
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM 45
streets will necessarily form Found-points, which should be treated as part of the park system.
The same principle of placing is followed for the larger play parks, in order that they may be
reached from one another by pasang through a continuous line of planting. The question of
density of population has been con^dered with reference to the relative sizes of those parks which
XLV. BERUK. BLOCK PLAN SHOWING THE PART SYnVM (GREEN). AND PROPOSED FOREfff RESERVES (DARE GREEN).
Repioduced from " Giom Beriin."
lie within the congested center, particularly with regard to the first circuit; and although all
such parks cannot be placed adjacent to boulevards, they are shown connected with one another
by important thoroughfares, so that the natural lines of travel will pass them. The smaller play
parks disregard to some extent the above principles, because these are in the strictest sense neigh-
borhood centers. The play parks and squares are thus balanced equally around the civic center,
which may be said to be the center of the varying densities of population. In this way, they
serve to accentuate the scheme of circuits laid down in the system of circulation on the
general plan.
46 PLAN OF CHICAGO
The report of the Special Park Commls^on, issued in 1904, contains a detailed study for a
metropolitan part system embradng all of Cook County, together with recommendations for
an outer system of pariu and boulevards, in the main following the watercourses throughout the
area of the county. Thus foundations have been laid for a ^stematic and aggressive camptugn
XLVL VIENNA. BLOCK PLAN SHOWING THE PARK 5TSTEU (GREEK), AND EXISTINO FOREST RESERVES (DARK GREEN).
Reproduced from "Grom Berlin."
to obtain for the people of Chicago those means of recreation and refreshment absolutely neces-
sary to a growing city. Extensive as the recommendations of the various park authorities appear,
a consideration of the whole problem will show that they scarcely do more than meet the situation
as it exists to-day, and that the near future will demand more ample spaces. The development
of the suburban service on steam roads, the extension of the electric lines which g^ve quidk and
frequent service between Chicago and cities sixty, seventy, and even a hundred miles distant, and
the increa^ng use of the automobile have brought within the sphere of Chicago's dominating
influence the towns and country for a radius of at least sixty miles from the geographical center
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM 47
of the dty- From Kenosha on the north, aiound to De Kalb on the west, and thence to Michigan
City on the south, all roads lead to Chicago; and this entire region mi^t well be included in
a metropolitan area within which large parks shall be located, improved, and maintained
at joint expense.
XLVIL DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
The time to secure the lands necessary for such a system is now, while as yet the prices are
moderate and the natural scenery is comparatively unspoiled. Every year of failure or neglect
to act largely increases the expense and diminishes the opportunities, for all of the lands about
Chicago are almost equally available for T>uilding purposes. Already the prairie state of Illinois
is nearly one-half urban, and the tendency towards city life is fast increasing. At the same time
the need for breathii^ spaces and recreation grounds is being forced upon the attention of practi-
cal men, who are learning to appreciate the fact that a dty, In order to be a good labor-market,
48 PLAN OF CHICAGO
must provide for the health and pleasure of the great body of workers. Den^ty of population
beyond a certain point results in disorder, vice, and disease, and thereby becomes the greatest
menace to the well-beii^ of the city itself. As a measure of precaution, therefore, the establish-
ment of adequate park area is necessary.
If Chicago is to equal or surpass London in size, the provision for open spaces here cer-
tainly should be no less than that which the British metropolis has found necessary. And yet
London is constantly addii^ to its recreation groxmds. As respects large parks, that city counts
Epping Forest, sixteen miles to the north, which with the neighboring Hainault Forest includes
5,600 acres, an area opened by the Corporation of London in 1882, as a free and inalienable
public park and place of recreation; and Bushy Park, fifteen miles to the west, comprising
a thousand acres; and Richmond Park, with its 2,355 ^cres, not counting the famous Kew
Gardens; while Windsor Great Park, i,8co acres in extent, is but twenty-one mUes from
the city. Thus within a radius of twoscore miles from his city, the Londoner has at his com-
mand lai^e parks comprising in the aggregate more than ten thousand acres; and every traveler
who has foxmd himself in London on a pleasant Sunday in summer knows well how the city
empties itself of people on that day, and how every vehicle available is brou^t into service to
accommodate the crowds seekii^ rest and recreation in the woods and on the Thames. On
such an afternoon the Thames at Richmond is so covered with canoes and wherries that one
might walk dry-shod across the river, steppii^ from boat to boat. The great crowd of all sorts
and conditions of men and women is gay and good natured, and the scene, as looked down upon
from the terraces of Hampton Court, has a charm beyond the power of words to express.
The name of Henley brings to the mind of the Englishman all that is beautiful and
picturesque in the amateur aquatic life of that country. Henley is situated on the Thames in
one of its most beautiful stretches; the valley is verdant; the trees are old and stately, while
velvet lawns and gardens gay hne
the banks at frequent intervals. Back
from the water the Chiltem Hills rise
in a mass of green woods and wavii^
grain. During regatta week, bxmting,
flags, flowers, and decorations of ail
kinds attract the eye, and the pictur-
esque old place is made a scene of
brightness and gayety. In the evening
the many house-boats are aglow with
colored lanterns; hghts from boats o(
every sort flash hithei; and thither on
the water, and fireworks fight the
heavens in beautiful colors.
Paris, which is one of the great
manufacturing centers of the world, „ „„
° ' XLVIIL LONDON. A VIEW OF ROTTEN KOW IN HYDE PARX.
has the Bois de Boulogne of 3,250 acres
at its very gates; and only five miles distant, skirting the eastern boundary of the city, is
the Bois de Vincennes of somewhat greater area. Thirty-seven miles distant is the forest
of Fountainebleau, which covers no less than 43,500 acres, the most beautiful of all French
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM 49
forests; while the gardens of Versailles, with their wonderful fountains, are but fourteen miles
away. Berlin has its great pine woods on the east, west, and north of the city, the park
development having been made to keep pace with other radical changes which since 1878
have transformed the German capital from a badly arranged, ill-built, and ill-kept town into
one of the magnificent capital cities of the world. At Vienna the forest park known as
the Prater, 4,270 acres in extent, extends along the east side of the city; and so diversified are
the uses to which this recreation place is put, that perhaps no other single park in the world
accommodates so many people. Large as these spaces seem, no one of the cites mentioned
is satisfied with its present park area; but each one is striving to enlarge its opportunities for
recreation.
In 1893 Boston began the creation of its system of metropolitan parks, by the adoption of
a report made that year by a special commission. Thirteen cities and twenty-six towns are now
included in the metropolitan district; and upwards of ten thousand acres are controlled by a
board of five commissioners. The funds for the acquirement and development of the system
had been raised by loans represented by forty-year bonds issued by the State of Massachusetts,
to be repaid from sinking funds made up of annual payments by the various cities and towns
included within the district, except that the entire commonwealth has assimied about two and
a half millions of one of the three loans, which aggregate about ten and a half millions. The
annual payments for sinking funds, interest, and maintenance are made according to a table
of percentages fixed by the supreme court of the state upon the report of a special commission
appointed each five years. The original plan, although somewhat modified from time to time
to accommodate new drcumstances, has been adhered to with great fidelity as constituting the
project for a complete outlying park system, to the gradual accomplishment of which the state
and the district has committed itself. The appropriations, averaging between six and seven
hundred thousand dollars a year for sixteen years, have been general in form; the commission
has never made durect appeals or efforts to secure grants of money; but citizens concerned
in the accomplishment of some particular portion of the system have interested themselves to
secure the necessary funds. The woods reservations were acquired first; then Revere Beach
and the banks of the lower Charles River; and lastly the twenty-seven miles of connecting park-
ways. After the first ten years, the legislature reviewed the entire situation, and, finding the
work good, provided three hundred thousand dollars a year for four years for its continuation.
Each year increases the nimiber of friends of the system, and the necessary funds for enlarge-
ment or for special treatments, such as building ocean-front driveways, the acquisition of some
specially desirable natiual feature, or the construction of a connecting parkway, are provided.
The plan of Washington provides for a complete system of parks encircling the entire city,
uniting Potomac Park, which stretches along the river front, with the present Zoological and
Rock Creek parks on the north; thence by parkways to the Soldiers* Home grounds, some
seven hxmdred acres in extent, and on to the valley of the Anacostia, where a tidal basin will be
formed. The palisades of the upper Potomac, the Arlington estate, and the chain of aban-
doned forts on the hills overlooking the city, all become parts of the simple yet comprehensive
scheme, which is but the logical development of the original L'Enfant plan. Already Wash-
ington is realizing in large measure the commercial advantages of civic beauty. People from
all parts of the country are building fine residences along the broad avenues ; and new business
structures vie with the government office buildings in design and solidity. Thus the plans which
so PLAN OF CHICAGO
seemed but a dream when they were first exhibited ei^ years ago are now so far accomplished
that complete realization seems plainly in sight.
The opportunities for large parks in the inmiediate vicinity of Chicago are ample. First
in importance is the shore of Lake Michigan, which should be treated as park space to the
greatest possible extent. The Lake front by right belongs to the people. It affords their one
great xmobstructed view, stretching away to the horizon, where water and clouds seem to meet.
No moimtains or high hills enable us to look over broad expanses of the earth's surface; and
perforce we must come even to the margin of the Lake for such a survey of nature. These views
of a broad expanse are helpful alike to mind and body. They beget calm thoughts and feelings,
and afford escape from the petty things of life. Mere breadth of view, however, is not alL
The Lake is living water, ever in motion, and ever changing in color and in the form of its waves.
Across its surface comes the broad pathway of light made by the rising sun; it mirrors the
ever-changing forms of the clouds, and it is illumined by the glow of the evening sky.
Its colors vary with the shadows that play upon it. In its every aspect it is a living thing,
delighting man's eye and refreshing his spirit. Not a foot of its shores should be appropri-
ated by individuals to the exclusion of the people. On the contrary, everj^thing possible should
be done to enhance its attractiveness and to develop its natural beauties, thus fitting it for the
part it has to play in the life of the whole city. It should be made so alluring that it will become
the fixed habit of the people to seek its restful presence at every opportunity.
Wherever possible, the outer shore should be a beach on which the waves may break; and
the slopes leading down to the water should be quiet stretches of green, unvexed by the small
irregular piers and the various kinds of projections which to-day give it an imtidy appearance.
Except where formal treatments are demanded, the inner shore should be a planted ^pace.
'There should be lagoons, narrow and winding, along the north shore, and wider, with more
regular lines, along the south shore. Both margins of these lagoons should be planted with
trees and shrubs, so arranged as to leave openings of various sizes, thus making vistas of the
water and the life upon it, to be enjoyed by the people passing along the driveways or living
in the homes that line park stretches. These plantations should be carefuUy devised so as to
display every form and color of foliage and blossom known to this climate; the foliage should
be arranged so as to be seen here in masses and there at the end of vistas, by boatmen close at
hand or far away over the waters. The aspect of these plantings from the open lake also should
be studied, and especially the subject of evergreens and other forms of winter planting demands
adequate attention.
Moreover, the sweet breath of plant life so abundant in nature and so agreeable to man
should give greeting to those who seek the refreshment of the parks. Color of blossoms, too,
should be used, not in little beds or as mere incidents, but in masses stretching broadly along
the shores of the lagoons, and even upon the surface of the water itself,, where aquatic plants
of many varieties may be made to contribute their part in this possible paradise. The culti-
vation and maintenance of such stretches of natural beauty must have the co-operation of the
people, to the end that the loveliness intended for all may be protected.
The building of parks along the shore is dictated by considerations of health and enjoyment.
The ease with which the work can be accomplished becomes apparent when one considers that
the refuse of the city seeks a dmnp which cannot be found anywhere else than on the Lake front.
Probably 1,000,000 cubic yards of waste are annually conveyed to the Lake front from Evanston
*«r'
XLIX. CHICAGO. VIEW OF THE CITY FROM JACKSO
The proposed shore Ireatmenl as a park enclosmg a, waterway (or a series of lagoons) U i
Painted for the Comn
This park may be built almost without cost to the people c
wastage from Ihe city. This material aggregates at the pn
acres per annum. In this manner Giant Park has alrcai
only a qi
TO GRANT PARS, LOOKING TOWARDS THE WEST.
Dgether with the enlarged yacht harbor, recreation piers, and a Kherae for Grant pMk.
lub by Jules Guerin.
0, by making use ot the excavated material and general
Tient an amount suHicient to Gil as many as twenty-two
Tfaled, and its extension down the south shore will be
^-^^SggI5^^ roiR»»oeBiJ L^>l JJ U! | i
'^«rv**rf
v;J5. . ■
I
« • «« »
•••
•••
• ••
• •••
••• •
A
Grand Boulevard
Diagram A. Lake shore from Chicago Aveoue on the oortb lo ]»
L. CHICAGO. PARK DEVELOPMENT PROPOSED FOR THE LAKE SHORE FROM JACKSON PARK TO wnLMETTL
This park, enclosing lagoons for boating, would be a continuous playground for the p^ple, and may be built by ulili^'-
the wastage Irom the city and excavated material at practically no cost.
II
1 Park on the south.
Vhwest towards the city.
i
■ I
'* *'W'" 'ww«MnHn i Mtfui| i o c tftft;gi;g cgcg^
Grand •
Cott
A vet
LII. CHICAGO. SECTION THROUGH THE PARK PROPOSED FOR THE SOUTH SHORE.
A boulevard is suggested above that portion of the railroad right-of-way used for frditht; addiliocMl right-of-way open to tbe ai
._ 1 .'J. J r *— -'-is; approaches to the outer parit lo run from (he boulevard over the tracki.
I **
• • •
• 1 •
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM 51
to South Chicago, enough to fill twenty acres of ground, raisii^ it seven feet above the sur-
face in twenty feet of water. The necessary breakwaters having been built, this constantly
growing amount of waste material can be put in place cheaply. Therefore, it is wise to pro-
vide now for the disposition of it, and to design beautiful and extensive park strips along the
entire shore, which will almost build themselves in the course of another generation. Indeed
both health and danger to navigation prohibit the emptying of this spoil in the Lake, as has
been done in the past.
These lagoons, protected from the waves of the open Lake and sheltered from the wind by
the city on one side and the park strips on the other, will be a powerful attraction toward open-
LUL CHICAGO. THE lODWAY PLAISANCE. SHOWING TH£ PROPOSED
WATERWAY CONNECTING THE LAGOONS OF WASHINGTON PARK WITH
THOSE OF JACKSON PARK, AND EVENTUALLY WTTH THE WATERWAY OF
THE PROPOSED SHORE PARK EXTENDING FKOU JACKSON PARK TO
GRANT PARK.
air athletics, both winter and summer; they will afford a course for races for Northwestern Uni-
versity at the north and the Chicago University at the south. House-boats, launches, canoes,
rowboats, and small sailboats will ply upon them, as well as craft for the public use, such as are
usual on the Thames, the Seine, and the canals of Venice. The waterway should be lined with
restaurants and pleasure pavilions and with public bath houses; swimming beaches should be
constructed on their shores, which by careful designing can be made as picturesque as any
inland river. Both shores should be a part of the general design, and together with the lagoon
itself these shores should be owned by the park authorities, in order that the whole may be effec-
tually policed.
Imagine this supremely beautiful parkway, with its frequent stretches of fields, playgounds,
avenues, and groves, extending along the shore in closest touch with the life of the city throughout
the whole water front. What will it do for us in health and happiness? After it is finished
will the people of means be so ready to run away and spend their money in other cities? Where
else can they find such delightful conditions as at home ? We should no longer lose so much of
the cream of our earnings, now spent in other lands. When this parkway shall be created, our
people will stay here, and others will come to dwell among us — the people who now spend
time and large amounts of money in Paris, in Vienna, and on the Riviera. It will turn back
52 PLAN OF CHICAGO
the stream of profits which have to such a large degree gone away from us, and every one living
here will feel the result of this change, for between prosperity and bad times there is often but a
small percentage, and the community which can keep its earnings at home prospers.
In order to appreciate the recreation which the Lake front when properly developed will
afford, one has but to recall the pleasiuc which ^tnllar waters afford to the people of other
countries. For example, the clusters or fringes of islands in the vicinity of Stockholm form a
favorite resort for the yachtsmen of Sweden, their chief rendezvous being Sandham, a pilot station
on the margin of the Baltic. Tourists enjoy the exhibitions of swimming given in the public
baths of Stockholm, and the canoeing on the nxunerous lakes and waterways. The winter
sports and competitions — skating, skee-running, skate-saihng, ice-yachtii^, sledge-kicking, and
toboganning — are famous
the world over; and the
Sport Park (Idrottsparken)
at Stockhom is one of the
features of the city.
From South Chicago to
Grant Park the treatment
proposed is made up of a
parkway along the actual
shore line, following the
ri^t-of-way of the Illinois
Central Raihoad; and also
a wide park strip entirely
in the Lake, enclosit^ a
series of lagoons. On the
north a similar treatment is
<>oniwT,,w,KaM»,i<u.»««»o suggested, except that here
XLIV. CHICAGO. TYPICAL VIEW ACROSS THE PROPOSED SOUTH SHORE .!,„ „„,1„™„ ;„ u *
PARK, FOR EXAMPLE, AT WOODLAND PARK. the parkway IS somcwhat
narrower than on the South
Side, Mid an additional element is introduced in the form of a chain of outlying islands. The
arrangement on the north comprises two roadways, the first following the shore as it exists to-day,
while the second roadway runs within the park strip lying beyond the h^oons. In the latter park-
way the line is simplified and irregularities disappear to a lajge extent, the outer line from North
Avenue to Evanston finally becoming a double curve. This is further enveloped with a hne formed
by the chain of islands which it is proposed to build on the shallows. This line curves gentiy
from the north in a southerly direction until it joins the outer park strip north of the River. This
point is the beginning of the line which flows towards the south shore. A yacht harbor should
be constructed at the northern end. The sport of yachting is very greatly in need of encoui?^-
ment of this form, as the navigation of Lake Michigan is rather dai^rous, and there is now no
point north of the River to which a yacht can run for shelter. In addition to the northern yacht
harbor, there should be other harbors, in the lee of the proposed islands, out in the I^e. These
would be of the utmost value to yachtsmen, as they would afford from mile to mile a point of
refuge in case of surprise by squalls.
For the most part, an informal landscape treatment is proposed for the two park strips;
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM 53
but where the bridges cross the lagoons, a more fonnal treatment is introduced and pavilions are
provided for the various recreation purposes. It is also proposed to create a yacht harbor just
north of Jackson Park, where the shallowness of the water permits the formation of extensive
meadows by filling; and also to fill
in above the shoals dotting the shore,
with a. group of islands. Broadly
stated, the treatment of the shore
&om South Chicago to Wilmette may
be said to be one which will result in
the restoration or perfection of the line
already existing; while the formal
treatment proposed at the bridges,
which are spaced at intervals of from
one to two miles, will create a rhythm
which even in this broad, general
scheme must have its value.
Next in the importance to the
development of the Lake shore possi-
LV. ENGLAND. HENLEY-ON-THAUES THE REGATTA COURSE. i ..... . ... , .
biuties 15 the acquisition and improve-
ment of forest spaces. Both the water front and the near-by woodlands should be brought
within ea^ reach of all the people, and especially of the wage-earners. Natural scenery
' furnishes the contrasting element to the artificiality of the city. All of us should often run
away from the works of men's hands and back into the wilds, where mind and body are restored
to a normal amdition, and we are enabled to take up the burden of life in our crowded
streets and endless stretches of buildings with renewed vigor and hopefulness. Those who
have the means and are so placed in-
their daily employments that they can
do so constantly seek the refreshment
of the (»xmtry. Should not the public
see to it that every one may enjoy
this change of scene, this restorer of
bodily and mental vigor, and will
not citizenship be better thereby?
He who habitually comes in close
contact with nature develops saner
methods of thought than can be the
case when one is habitually shut up
within the walls of a city. If a census i-"- England, henley-on-thames: a regatta.
,.,.., lUustrftUng the life which would develop ia the lagooDs of the pro-
of the purposes and acts of all of the poKd L&ke shore Puka.
people of Chicago as they affect the
general good could be made for this year of grace 1909, and again in 1933, after the creation of
extensive forests in the suburbs, the percenti^ of improvement affecting the whole community
would probably be quite surprising. The existing public parks go far in this direction, but not far
enough. The spaces to be acquired should be wild forests, filled with such trees, vines, flowers,
s'^'S«!iKBSOCqc=S5SeStSS!SSSh5SO^^^^^
54 PLAN OF CHICAGO
and shrubs as will grow in this climate, and all should be developed in a natural condition.
Country roads and a few paths should run through these forests, but they should not be cut
into small divisions. There should be open glades here and there, and other natural features,
and the people should be allowed to use them freely.
In the disposition of interior parks the main consideration should be, first, to distribute the
areas about the city as evenly as possible, so as to make large parks readily accessible to all citi-
LVn. VERSAILLES, PRANCE.
zens; and secondly, to select for improvement those localities which have the greatest charm
and value as park lands. Happily nature has furnished the opportunity to combine both con-
siderations. The wooded bluSs and ravines at the northern boundary of Cook County in Glen-
coe mark a natural park entrance from Lake Michigan. The viipn forest known as the Peter-
son woods, south of Peterson Avenue, the Gibbs woods, north of Gibbs Street, a beautiful spot
on the Chicago River south of Central Avenue, are especially attractive features of this stretch.
In spring the bloom of the thorn, the crab-apple, and the wild plum are featiues of the landscape;
the ground is everywhere carpeted with flowers; there are forests of elm, oak, ash, willow, and
Cottonwood ; and tiie Skokee marsh in beauty vies with the Lake itself. At a distance of a mile
inland the valley of the North Branch of the Chicago River is reached. In this valley the views
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM
55
are particularly beautiful, especially where the'
stretches are unbroken by constructions of any
kind. To the north the valley stretches far be-
yond the county line; to the south it is framed
on both sides with forest lands. In the r^on
of Central Avenue these forest lines spread, tak-
ing in the grounds of the Glenview Golf Club,
closing again between Kenilworth-and Bryn Mawr
avenues, where the foliage closely follows the
banks of the River. The area which should be
taken for this particular northern park includes
upwards of eight thousand acres, and at the
present time the land can be had at compara-
tively small expense.
The opportunity for a park area entirely
surrounding the city is to be found in the exten-
sion of the Lake entrance at Glencoe westward
until it reaches the valley of the Des Plaines;
thence the park stretch would extend south along
that valley to Riverside, and, taking in the valleys
of Salt and Flag creeks, still southerly to the
Drainage Canal. Turning to the east, the line
would extend along the Calumet Feeder, Stony
Creek, and Little Calumet River to and including
Lake Calumet, and thence to the Lake front.
The Des Plaines River from the county line
to Riverside flows mainly through thickly wooded
country which the parkway plans include; the
LX. ST. GEKHAIN, FRANCE. VIEW OF AN
AVENUE IN THE FOREST AND ROUND-POINT,
This avenue ctoucs above a railroad.
forests for the most part lie on the east side of
the River, occasionally crossing to the west side.
There are places of great beauty on the River
banks, including Thatcher's Park at River
Forest, which has been fenced in, and where an
admission fee is charged. South of River Forest
the parkway divides, and, passing around the
cemeteries at Harlem, joins the River at River-
ade. From Harlem to the southern extremity
of Riverside the foliage and the scenery generally
are exceptionally fine. The boulevard from
Summit, running in a southwesterly direction to
Spring Forest, commands fine views, particu-
larly over the rising wooded land of Du Page
56 PLAN OF CHICAGO
County. Mount Forest is covered with trees, and presents many delightful outlooks from its
height; these are particularly fine in the southwestern extremity, where the valley of the Des
Plaines to the southwest and northwest, and the Sag valley to the east, all are visible. Evergreen
LXI. CraCAGO. PLAN OF A PARK FROPOSED ON THE MAIN £AST~
AND-WEST AXIS OP THE CITY AT CONGRESS STREET AND npTY-SECOND
AVENUE.
Park is noted for its evei^reens, and Sherman farm is thickly wooded. As in the Chicago River
region, the thorn, the crab-apple, and wild plum abound; and the great forests consist of elm,
Cottonwood, and willow, the elm seeming to predominate. The forests in the Palos region stretch
south as far as the eye can reach.
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM
57
The Calumet is an ample
stream, and on every hand the
silhouettes of steel industries
give stroi^ evidence of the com-
ing importance of this channel
as a harbor. Every effort, there-
fore, should be made to concen-
trate the vehicle traffic crossing
this river at well-chosen points
where great bridges might be
constructed, in order to create
as little friction as possible be-
tween the vessel and the land
traffic. On the banks of the Cal-
tmiet, in the neighborhood of
One Hundred and Third Street,
are large swamps capable of
being developed into fine parks;
the country is gently xmdu-
lating, with plenty of wood-
land, and the view across Calu-
met Lake is fine. It is pro-
posed to create a driveway
around Lake Calumet, and to
reclaim the low lands south of
the lake without essentially
changing their present topog-
raphy; also to plant a belt of
woods surrounding this lake
park set in one of the greatest
manufacturing districts in the
world; and to construct road-
ways to form connections with
the different park reservations
and at the same time to become
highways to the city.
The encircling system of
forest parks and park con-
nections as thus outlined, when
taken in conjunction either
with the existing interior boule-
vards and the Sheridan Road,
or the proposed driveway along
Lxm. CHICAGO. PLAN OF /
r THE NORTH BRANCH
58 PLAN OF CHICAGO
the Lake kgoons makes a circuit of about one hundred miles, every portion of which would serve
directly an adjoining portion of the city. Such a comprehensive system of outlying parks is for the
Chicago of to-day quite as practical and quite as much needed as were the boulevards of a gener-
ation ago, which have now become
mterior thoroughfares of priceless
value. The forest preserves, with
their bordering driveways, would
m time come to be lined with
residences and large estates, and
rise in the value of the adjoin-
ing lands would permit the city
to recoup m taxation many times
the cost of lands now of small
value.
The grouping of manufac-
turing towns at the southern end
of Lake Michigan, and the seri-
ous attempts that have been
made (especially in Pullman and
Gary) to provide excellent hving
conditions for people employed
in large operations, create a de-
mand for extensive parks in that
region; because no city condi-
tions, however ideal in them-
selves, supply the craving for
real out-of-door life, for forests
and wild flowers and streams.
Human nature demands such
simple and wholesome pleasures
as come from roaming the woods,
for rowing and canoeing, and for
sports and games that require
large areas. The increasing
number of holidays, the growii^
use of Sunday as a day of rest
and refreshment for body and
.,..,,,, , . , , LXIV. CHICAGO. PLAN OF SEERUAN PLAYGRODND AND PARK,
nmid tU^ by the exactmg tasks ■neMseiiibIyhall,gyinii«aia.»iidc^)«i.«irswiiim.ing pool, foming. group
of the week, together with the MtheceMerofthecompositk.il.
constant improvement in the scale of living, all make imperative such means of enjoyment as the
lai^ park provides. Therefore, adequate provision for the growing populations that of necessity
must live in restricted town areas requires that In the region south and southwest of Chicago all
those marsh lands and wooded ridges which nature has thus far preserved from being
taken for manufacturing purposes now shoxUd be secured for the parks that in the next
THE CHICAGO PARK SYSTEM
LXV. CHICAGO. HARK WHITE SQUARE.
View of the childiieD's wading pool uid the field house.
6o PLAN OF CHICAGO
generation will be required, but
which will be beyond reach unless
taken in the immediate future.
The development of a sys-
tem of outlying lai^ parks along
the lines above indicated will
give to Chicago breathing-spaces
adequate at least for the imme-
diate future; the physical char-
acter of the lands to be taken will
insure a diversity in natural fea-
tures most pleasing and refreshing
to dwellers in cities; and the
aquisition of the areas entirely
around the present city will afford
convenient access for all the citizens, so that each section will be acconunodated. Moreover,
the development of especially beautiful sections, such as the region about Lake Zurich, will give
marked individuality to Chicago's outlying park system. It is by seizing on such salient features
of a landscape and emphaazing their peculiar features that the charm and the dignity of the city
are enhanced.
LXIX. CHICACO. DIAGRAU OF A SYSTEM OF FREIGHT HANDLINO FOR LAND AND WATER
TRANSPORTATION, TO BE WORKED IN CONJUNCTION WITH ONE ANOTHER,
(i) A ccDtnl cleoriiig and wsrebouung vard. (a) A oorth harbor at the moulh ot the Chicago River.
(3} A wuth harixir at the mouth of the Calumet lUver. (4) Underfpound freight lines intercoiuiecliiig
CHAPTER V
TRANSPORTATION: A FREIGHT CENTER: GROUPING OF PASSENGER STATIONS: A LOOP SYSTEM
HICAGO has been made largely by the railroads, and its
future prosperity is dependent upon them. In the past, however,
it has been the increase in the number of toads reaching this city
which has built up its commerce; but now, with twenty-two trunk
lines entering Chicago from every possible direction, and with con-
nections extending to all portions of the country, the question
of numbers has ceased to be the important one.
The present problem is to handle the traffic of the railroads
with dispatch and at the lowest cost. The city is too lai^ for
each railroad to attempt to maintain a separate system unrelated
to that of any other except the physical connection of the tracks.
The time has come to develop one common system for the handling of freight, — a traffic
clearing-house. The whole perplexing and intensely intricate subject requires not only the
62 PLAN OF CHICAGO
careful study of men expert in such matters, but also a spirit of mutual forbearance and
conciliation among railroad managers for the sake of promoting the general good.
Not that any one road of the entire twenty-two should be expected to make what will ulti-
mately prove a sacrifice, but that no road should hold back from doing its full part to bring about
the conditions essential to the continued prosperity of the city by the development in Chicago
of a imified system of traffic handling that shall place this city ahead of any other in so far as
efficiency and cheapness are concerned. The fine arts of traffic management should be studied
no less than the fine arts of parks and boulevards; for unless Chicago keeps ahead of her rivals
in commercial matters, the parks will become pastures, and the boulevards will be deserted.
In an address made in Chicago during the winter of 1906-7 Mr. James J. Hill laid the
utmost stress on the necessity for improved railway terminals. At that time a cry was going up
for more cars. Traffic was delayed, the railwa)rs being entirely imable to handle promptly the
freight offered them. Mr. Hill pointed out that the main difficulty was not lack of cars, but
lack of proper terminal facilities. It was a fact that hundreds and even thousands of loaded
cars were at that very moment standing on the tracks in the yards of every one of the great
trunk lines, which with their utmost efforts could not place these cars at the sides of the receiv-
ing platforms in the various cities. It is not an extreme statement to say that business was
almost paralyzed on account of the inability of the roads to handle at the terminals the freight
traffic of the country. On all the two-track lines continuous trains could have been handled
from one terminus to another, if the cars could have been rescued from the disordering condi-
tions in which they were involved and lost to use. The railroad companies were imable to make
proper use of their own rolling stock and main lines, all because of the congested condition of
their terminals, in which there were tracks enough, but tracks so badly placed and arranged
as to deprive the roads of the full benefit of their aggregate mileage.
The bad arrangement of terminal tracks was not alone responsible for the congested con-
dition which then prevailed at Chicago, New York, Pittsburg, and many other points. In an
equal or perhaps greater degree the habit of hauling all the freight into the heart of a city and
then hauling most of it out again was the cause of the trouble. If freight stations and yards
located close to the center of the business district of a city were inadequate under the conditions
that obtained in the winter of 1906-7, what will be the result at the next test, which will surely
be a more severe one ?
The conclusion is inevitable. Either nearly every one of the great railroads must increase
and improve both its main line and such of its freight houses and jrards as are now located in
the heart of the city, or they must cease to bring all freight into the congested business center.
Separate roads operating separate and independent rights-of-way to the separate and inde-
pendent freight houses cannot do the work.
Year by year the railroads have gone on strai^tening their lines, reducing grades, and
building additional tracks; and the result has been large savings in operating expenses. The
time has now come to devise some plan whereby the enormous terminal costs will be lessened
materially; and that city will benefit most wherein this problem shall be worked out first and
best.
This report does not attempt to dictate ; or to discuss the practical questions of railroading.
Its aim in respect to transportation is the same as in regard to all other matters of Chicago^s
welfare, namely, to incorporate such generalizations as are obviously true, logical, and helpful;
TRANSPORTATION
63
because it is rect^nized fully that unless the
railroads have power to improve their ter-
minals, this city will be hopelessly left behind
in the struggle for osmmercial advancement.
The same spirit that is evoked to brii^ about
other improvements is necessary also in the
case of the railroads.
In order to obtain for the community as a
whole the greatest economy per ton handled,
DIAGRAM A
no goods should be carried into and out of
the coi^ested business center except those
needed for construction, for retailing, -or for
consumption in that teiritory. Goods that
are now brought into Chicago as a center,
and from thence sold and distributed to the
country outside of Chicago, should be stored
at some point most convenient for the pur-
pose, — most convenient for deposit and for
reloadii^ and carryii^ away to other points.
It is obvious that the spot chosen be one most
convenient for the shipping public as a whole;
and therefore if common ground for such a
great general depot can be found for all the
roads, it will best answer the purposes of
DIAGRAM a
LZX. CHICAGO. ASSEMBUNG-INTEXCHANGE; DIA-
GRAMS ACCOMPANYING THE REPORT OF THE COM-
MITTEE. C W. HOTCHKISS, CON51TLTING ENGINEER.
(A) Present metbod of bkudliDg interchange of freuht on
iwioads in center of city. (B) Proposed method of hui-
dling intCTchsnge d freight on railroads by means at a bdt
line wd clearing yards, disengaging the center of the dty
ffprneaistiiig freight congestion.
64
PLAN OF CHICAGO
"3S
quick handling and of lowest cost per ton. A central depot, and common track facilities which
^ould form a part of it, would brii^ about time and money saving both to the railroads them-
selves and to the trading public. For the sake, therefore, of the best interests of all the citizens
of Chicago, it is proposed that great machines owned and operated in common by all the rail-
roads be created to handle freight
^\ X'^ business.
^^\~ A careful analysis of the en-
tire freight traffic of Chicago shows
that ninety-five per cent, in and
out, is done by the railroads, and
only five per cent is done by water.
It is the opinion of leading mer-
chants and manufacturers of this
city, as well as of traffic managers
of both rail and water transpor-
tation, that this average percent-
age of tonna^ will not change
in the future. This being the
case, the location of a great
conmion freight depositing and
reloading station for all the roads
should be located at a point most
economical for them as a whole,
at the common center of gravity
so to speak. This center of grav-
ity is at or near the location shown
on the dia|;ram. Here should be
trackage capable of handling in
the best manner all freight trains
coming into or departing from
Chicago, which are intended to
do busmess other than local
and suburban. It should be so
arranged that individual incoming
cars can be promptly placed beside
the intended unloadir^ platform or warehouse, where the goods can be handled with dispatch, and
as largely as possible by machinery. The car so unloaded should be at once placed at the platform
from which it is to take its new load, and then be entrained and started away to its next destination.
At this freight center may be the great warehouses of the city, arranged in reference to the
tracks and service. These mutual relations must of necessity produce economy of handling
goods, and economy of the closest sort. If the car and track service be perfected from the
freight train standpoint, Chicago will have an advantage not possessed by any other trade center
of the world, and her equipment will be fully equal to her destiny. The principal results would
be the quick handling of freight trains by all the roads, their rapid unloading and reloadii^,
ir
■w
. LXXI. CHICAGO. SKETCH DIAGRAM OF DOCKS SUGGESTED AT
THE MOUTH OF THE CHICAGO RIVER FOR PACKAGE FREIGHT
STEABIERS.
TRANSPORTATION 65
and their exemption from passii^ into or through the crowded city. This would result in
an enormous saving every year. Such a scheme can be carried out here, because the entire
suiTounding country is flat.
The relief from the congestion in the city now caused by bringing in and carrying out goods
not to be consumed there will result in less crowding in the city, and also in the saving of its
pavements, in much less dirt, and finally, in a mitigation of the smoke nuisance, because of the
removal of freight engines and manufacturing to the new freight handling locality.
LXXII. CHICAGO. SKETCH DIAGRAM OF DOCKS SUGGESTED AT THE MOUTH OF THE
CALUMET RIVEK FOR BULK FREIGHT STEAMERS; ACCESS TO BE HAD WITHOUT
OPENING OF BRIDGES.
Together with this freight handling center should be a harbor in connection with each of
the two rivers, the Chicago and the Calumet. These two harbors should be connected under-
ground or overhead by freight ways operated electrically, and they should also be connected
with the freight handling center. The four elements, namely, freight center, two harbors, and
the connecting systems, will then form one complete machine for doing almost all the transpor-
tation of goods for Chicago for all time. No doubt the present tunnel railway system should
be tied up with and form part of this machine : all probably to be owned jointly by some gen-
eral utility corporation. In such case any merchant or manufacturer, located wherever he may
be, could, in the shortest space of time and at lowest cost per ton, receive goods from the great
depository (the freight center) or send them to it for entraining.
The present underground system of tunnels already extends under all of the streets in the
old bu^ness district of Chicago, and is extending on the North, South, and West Sides. It is
66 PLAN OF CHICAGO
connected with all of the railway freight stations, its floor is about 40 feet from the street surface,
and is connected at that level with chambers under many of the leading conmiercial and manu-
facturing establishments and office buildings of the city, from each of which freight elevators
deliver goods to and from the shipping-rooms above. Any existing tunnel system can be util-
ized as far as it will go in carrying out a complete system of underground distribution.
The freight handling center should become a perfect machine in itself. Trains of freight
cars coming to or going from the city should be handled there, so that the individual cars may be
placed at the particular warehouse from which goods are to come, and from these cars the new
trains should be made up in station order. No considerable car supply should be kept on hand
in this freight jrard. In the course of time, when the freight business of Chicago shall have
greatly increased, the present freight-car jrards will be needed for storage of cars, and holding
those needing repairs or rebuilding. The yards will then perform an important function, for
when more cars are needed at the great central freight machine, they can be sent thither from
each of the separate yards. Should a siurplus of cars exist at the center of any road, this surplus
can be withdrawn to that road^s own yard.
One of the large retail merchants of Chicago, when in need of a fresh case of goods, now
telephones to his own storehouse situated far from his shop, and through the underground tun-
nel quickly receives goods in a sealed car. This method of supplying the merchant's needs
illustrates what will happen to all merchants when the central freight depot shall come
fully into existence. A method that will work with precision, quickness, and close economy
will relieve the down-town streets of freight traffic now hauled over them, and therefore make
the streets cleaner and more lasting. Will not these great general facilities profoundly affect
for the better the material prosperity of Chicago as a whole ? When this S)rstem shall be put in
operation, the better street plan, and the enlargement and improvements suggested for parks,
parkways, and the Lake front, will cause the city to become permanently and highly prosperous.
In connection with the freight diagrams, the one niunbered LXXIII should be considered.
It shows a radical change in warehousing, and perhaps manufacturing, which will take time and
cannot be put into effect abruptly, but is undoubtedly the logical outcome and ultimately must
prevail. It also shows the present tendency of growth of both manufacturing and warehous-
ing which seems to follow and cling to belt lines of raihoad, especially when such lines run be-
side the River or Canal, where every sort of freighting economy now in vogue can be made use
of. It is evident that while present methods continue in use, and until the great freight scheme
can be put into operation, some conunon facility railroad highways must be introduced in
order to improve the handling of freight in the direction of quickness and cost. The diagram
(No. LXXIII) shows what these freight common facilities should be, namely:
1. An inner loop (A),
2. Loop (B), connected as shown with the inner loop,
3. Loop (C), also connected with the inner loop, and finally, loop (D).
If these three loops be wide, many-tracked, and operated for the benefit of all railroads, then
the movement of freight can be increased in efficiency; and such manufacturers and warehouse-
men as build against the loops can be accommodated with everything needed to carry on their
individual activities. Freight stations can be located on these loops wherever required, and
each can be certain of quick and cheap service, the common facilities being operated by the
railroads. A detail diagram for freight in the center of the city is shown in No. LXXIV.
LXXIIL CHIQWO. DIAGRAU OF THE CITY AND SUKROUNDING COUNTRY, SHOWINO RAILROAD aRCUTTS, B, C, D,
AND E. WHICH ARE, OR MAY BECOME, TANGENT TO THE INNER CIRCUIT (A).
The di4gram »lu sbows ibe exiBting industries, tnd the probable trend of growth Kwaj ttixa the center of the citjr.
68 PLAN OF CHICAGO
It is proposed to extend the freight lines to the Lake front piers and harbors. The excur-
sion-boat piers, as well as the recreation piers and those at the harbors, are to be thus connected.
It is probable that many of the present freight houses of the railroads will remain and carry on
their functions as at present, except as to goods now hauled into and out of Chicago, although
intended solely for outside trade. As they are already connected by tunnel, they can be and will
be used for the city-consumption trade, and to supply the great niunber of smaller retailers and
others who cannot afford to operate separate individual freight elevators from their shops to the
tunnel railroad.
At the present time much of the near-by farm stuff for housekeepers, hotels, and restaurants
is brought into the city on wagons which load late in the afternoon and travel at night, reaching
the general market at South Water Street or West Market at dawn. Much if not all of this
freightage can be done cheaper to the truck farmers, and more satisfactorily to the consumer,
by cars run at night on the trolley and elevated lines. Between one and seven o^clock in the
morning these roads should render this important service. The saving of wear and tear on road-
beds due to the elimination of heavy teaming is, all by itself, enough to recommend the adoption
of the above suggestion. Besides, the convenience of both producer and consiuner is to be con-
sidered, and also the saving of time and the cheapening of provisions.
The proposed street plan of Chicago is based on a system of circuits and radials. This is
also true of the railroad and traction systems. As shown on the accompanying diagrams, the
heart of Chicago is surrounded by a circuit of railways, which may be said to foUow Michigan
Avenue, Canal Street, Sixteenth Street, and Kinzie Street. Following the same lines, a subway
circuit may be constructed for handling freight, and another for passengers, the latter running,
however, on Twelfth and Washington. To tihis circuit would be tangent three others enclosing
areas increasing in size around the center of the city as above described. By means of these
circuits a complete system of distribution of passengers and freight may be secured. To the
inner circuit will relate the various services of distribution of the elements of life, produce, and
commodities for manufacture; and on it should be placed the freight substations, the markets
for general produce, the main post-oflGice, and postal substations. The various services for
water, sewers, power, telephone, and telegraph, also may be schemed on the inner circuit as a
basis. To it will also correspond the inner circuit of boulevard circulation.
Although these various circuits do not correspond in exact detail to one another, they may
be said to be virtuaUy superposed, and to serve not only the intensely active center of the city, but
also the enclosing zone as far as the second boulevard circuit — Michigan Avenue, Twenty-
second Street, Ashland Avenue, and Chicago Avenue — an ideal condition if the main circula-
tion of the streets be left free and uninterrupted in its working.
The center line on which balance the circuit A, and all the others to a greater or less degree,
is the axial line of Congress Street. The two great arteries, Halsted and Congress streets, may
be said to form the grand crossing, at the intersection of which it is proposed to place the civic
center. The base of this civic center touches the west side of the inner circuit, tangent to which
are all the other circuits. The importance of this inner circuit will thus be seen. The tangent
or line of coincidence extends from Lake Street to Sixteenth Street. It may be used as the clear-
ing-house for all the interests above described, coming to and going from the heart of the city.
The passenger lines entering the densely inhabited parts of the city should not cross each
other or carriage roads at grade. Much has been done already, and much more is proposed to
LXXIV. CHICAGO. DIAGSAH OP THE CITV CENTER, SHOWING THE GENERAL LOCATION OP EXISTING FREIGHT
YAKDS AND KAIUIOAD LINES, THE PRESENT TUNNEL SYSTEM AND PROFOSED aRCUIT. AND CONNECTIONS FOR
ALL THESE SERVICES, RUNNING TO THE CENTRAL CLEARING YARDS.
PLAN OF CHICAGO
eliminate grade crossii^s. In European cities, and in some American cities as well, the rail-
roads have taken great pains to beautify their rigbts-of-way, a step very important to the roads
themselves, to individual passengers, and to the community at large. Cleanliness and pleasii^
treatment of the roadways, the embankments, the drainage chamiels, the fences, the yards, and
the stations, lai^ and small, insure better service on the part of the railroad employees, while the
appearance of the city is immensely improved thereby.
The terminal stations in the city should be either above or below the street levels. They
should be centrally located, but always arranged so as to avoid the closing of streets. The two
best available locations for permanent passenger stations for all the roads are, first, between
Canal and Clinton streets from Lake Street to Twelfth Street, and on Twelfth Street widened
TRANSPORTATION 71
as proposed. In the case of the terminal stations between Canal and Clinton streets, the tracks
either under or over street grades may be allowed to extend out to the street curb lines and
possibly farther. Whether under or over
the grade, the railroads should be allowed
to occupy this entire space. In case the
overhead system be adopted, there should
be two open plazas, one preferably at
WashiT^on Street and the other at Con-
gress Street; and the plazas should have
no tracks above them, except passovers
on each side of the plazas.
In case of overhead installation,
the roads may, for the present, bum
coal in their locomotives. In case of
depressed rights-of-way coal cannot be
burned unless the spaces from street
L»™ DKESDm mi,ocr A«, ,™.w», STATION (luwr to street over the railways be kept open.
BAHN-HOF) PASSING ABOVE THE NORMAL STREET LEVEL, ILLUS- In thc long rUn, it will bc Veiy COStlv tO
TRATING THE TYPE PROPOSED IN THE OVERHEAD SCHEME j .i_- i_ n .!.• e_ j_ ^
FOR RAn.wAY STATIONS WEST OP THE RIVER. 00 Uus, oecause all tills space irom street
to street, so long as not needed by the
rdlroads, could be used for markets, commercial booths, and warehouses, the rentab reducing
the cost of operation to the road.
In case of
elevation, the via-
ducts over the
streets should
have sidewalk
lights between the
rails, and these
viaducts shoiild be
freed of posts,
deep girders be-
ing used ; the walls
and pavements
should be as near-
ly white as pos-
sible. The Eighth
Street subway
under the Union
Station yard at lxxvil vienna. a. railway viaddct passing over ak iuportakt street.
Washington,D.C.,
is a good example of what such a structure should be. There is no reason why these viaducts
should not be very attractive when brilliantly lighted. Each should have a handsome police
house in the center, with windows arranged to give a clear view of the entire space included
PLAN OF CHICAGO
under the tracks. There is no reason why this construction, even if elevated, should not pre-
sent a very pleasing appearance as seen from CaJial Street or Clinton Street. Whether there are
buildii^ or only unoccupied spaces beneath, they can be enclosed hy masonry walls extending
high enough above track level effectually to screen the trains from view. Such a structure would
be similar in general effect to the great Roman aqueducts. It might be made not only of prac-
tical value, but at the same time a highly interesting and even a grand architectural detail
lending orderly distinction to that part of the city.
The Twelfth Street location would extend from State Street west to the South Branch of the
Chicago River, straightened as shown on the diagram, accordii^ to the design for the passenger
stations of Chicago which was made and published years ago. Here the purpose is to care for
passenger service of every sort, except that of roads aiming in on the West Side system. These
stations should open on the great Twelfth Street Boulevard, which in front of the stations should
be two hundred and fifty feet wide, and east and west of the stations should be one hundred
and eighty feet in width. This boulevard would begin to rise at Michigan Avenue, and at the
final elevation, which is at the level of the main floor of the stations, should pass over the River
on a double-deck bascule bridge. This thoroughfare should come to the present street level at
Canal Street, where there is to be a round-point from which a new street should extend to the
civic center. As a one hundred and fifty foot wide boulevard. Twelfth Street should continue
TRANSPORTATION
westward until it joins the West Park Boulevard now existing on the same line, west of Ashland
Avenue. The present rights-of-way of the raihoads passing under Twelfth Street can go into
business use without loss to the corporations owning them. The freight systems and track-
age for all of these roads should be underneath the proposed passenger stations and their yards.
No more modem or perfect machine could possibly be devised for both passenger and
freight in a great city's heart than that included in the two schemes above shown and
explained. Of necessity they should have an ideal street-car connection with all parts of the
dty. To accomplish this result it is proposed:
First, to carry the elevated loop along the side and east of the West Side passenger system;
aloi^ the side and south of the Twelfth Street passenger system; thence over to the Alley L as
at present, around by Lake Street and across to the West Side passenger station, formii^ a
complete overhead circuit.
Second, there should be a surface street-car circuit followii^ the same route, with minor
circuits within it.
Third, there shoidd be an underground street-car system following substantially the same
route as first mentioned above, but extending under the main branch of the River and running
east and west at or near Michigan Street. Two extensions of this service are shown north of the
River, two south of Twelfth Street, and one west, at or near Ashland Avenue.
74 PLAN OF CHICAGO
This entire system of stations and street-car routes is shown on diagram marked No. LXXX.
If carried out, many times the present number of people can be handled in the center of
Chicago; and all* streets can be kept open on their present level north and south, east and
west, giving every possible opportunity for circulation on foot and in wagons and carriages,
since surfaces would be available for carrying people below and above the present grades.
The better circulation of people on the streets and on street-car sjrstems is not all or even
the principal gain anticipated. Of j&rst importance is the restoration to general business of the
territory from State Street to the South Branch of the River, and from Van Buren Street south to
Twelfth Street. This area is almost as large as our present central business district of Chicago,
in which there can now be no extension of such of bur great industries as can succeed only
when operated in the very center of the business district. Present conditions are crowding out
enterprising men and vast capital. This new area must be added to the old, and by no other
means than those proposed can this be done. The regions north of the main River and west of
the South Branch are filling up solidly and very rapidly with business, such as is not and never
will be done on the old location from Van Buren Street to Water Street ; meanwhile there is the
most urgent necessity of extending the space for the kind of business that is and always will be
done on such a location as the one proposed. If this is the case now, what will be the case
ten years hence? We cannot act too proniptly in regard to creating and maintaining perfect
street circulation, car circulation, and extension of area for the heart of Chicago. We cannot
get ready too soon for the enormous extension of all those facilities the necessity for which is
already pressing.
By the arrangement of passenger stations at Canal and Twelfth streets, the business center
is convenient for pedestrians, and with the addition of the underground and overhead loops, the
entire business district is within easy and comfortable reach. This applies to both through
and suburban passenger traffic.
This report does not go into details of the roadwa3rs and stations, either trunk or intra-
mural. Routes are suggested which seem to be the natural and logical ones. The expert en-
gineers will find the best solutions of the constructive and mechanical problems as they arise.
But all citizens are interested to see that the best and most comprehensive general schemes shall
be adopted, and that in carrying out of any one of them, every detail shall be designed and exe-
cuted with regard to its effect on the senses as well as on the basis of mere mechanical or con-
structive excellence. A million Chicago people who habitually use railway facilities will possess
a higher average of good citizenship when the irritation of nerves is reduced to the minimum,
and within a few years most of the waking hours of a million Americans will be spent in the
business center of Chicago, where unpleasant sights and sounds should be abolished. The com-
munity will get far more out of its million workers when their nerves cease to be wracked by
irritating conditions.
Again, the noises of surface and elevated road cars is often excruciating. It is not denied
that this evil can be largely mitigated These conditions actually cause misery to a large ma-
jority of people who are subjected to the constant strain, and in addition they undoubtedly cause
a heavy aggregate loss of money to the business conmiunity. For the sake of the state, the citizen
should be at his best, and it is the business of the state to maintain conditions conducive to his
bodily welfare. Noises, ugly sights, ill smells, as well as dirty streets and workshops or offices,
tend to lower average efficiency. It does not pay the state to allow them to continue. Moreover,
IXXX. CHICAGO. DIACKAM OP CITY CENTER, SHOWING THE PROPOSED ARRANGEMENT OP RAILROAD
PASSENGER STATIONS, THE COMPLETE TRACTION SYSTEM. INCLUDING RAPID TRANSIT, SUBWAY, AND ELEVATED
ROADS. AND THE dRCUTT SUBWAY LINE.
The last is designed, — (A) To connect all raJlrood stations with one another. (B) To connect passengns from all point* of
the city within and without the center with the raihxiad stations b; UHnsfer from (he subway line propoeed in the Arnold
Rqioit. (C) To supplement by trsitsfer the mterchange of pAssengera from traction tines going lorot^b the center from
the North, South, or West to any point in tbe citj'.
76 PLAN OF CHICAGO
citizens have pride in and loyalty to a dty that is quiet, clean, and generaUy beautiful. It
is not believed that "business" demands that our present annoying conditions be continued.
In a state of good order all business must be done better and more profitably. With things as
they should be, every business man in Chicago would make more money than he does now.
In regard to the mail service
of Chicago this report can have
little to say. Only expert public
officials trained in haadling the
mails are capable of discus^ng it;
and apart from the pneumatic tube
or other circulatory system it does
not affect our special problem. From
motives of economy the Federal
Government has incorporated post-
offices in the same buildings with
United States a)urts and other pub-
lic offices. The time has come for
a chai^ in this re^>ect, and it is
to be hoped that such a building or
buildings as this service will need in
order to do its great and fast-grow-
ing business will be located where
needed for post-office purposes, and
be designed as to subserve these
special functions. The Federal Gov-
ernment should work out a complete
scheme for handling the mail matter
of Chicago. The location of the
central postH3ffice and substations
should be determined with a view to
economical reception and distribu-
tion, all having reference to one
another, to the railway mail stations
in the city and suburbs, and, as
before stated, to the general ^stem
of railway circuits. If it be pos-
»»*.,.«.,»»-«»«».-<»»» sible to determine the future route
of overhead, surface, and elevated
street-car systems, they should be
brought into the consideration of the Chicago mall service scheme. Strict economy and quick
collections and delivery are all involved in this study.
The general trend of improvement is in the direction of central plants for heating, lighting,
and power, because such plants are found to do the work more economically than separate
stations. The individual buildings would, in such a case, cost less initially by leaving out much
TRANSPORTATION 77
of the mechanical work now installed; and also they would make saving by greater cleanliness,
due to improved atmospheric conditions. For it stands to reason that the abolition of a large
majority of the smokestacks of the down-town district would improve the air we breathe, and
relieve us of much of the cost of cleaning buildings, inside and out, and of protecting goods.
LXXXIL CHICAGO. DIACRAH OF GENERAL 5CBEUE OF STREET aRCULATIOM AND PARKS IN RELATION TO
THE AREAS COVERED BY INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES (RED). THE CENTER OF INDUSTRIES IS INDICATED
BY A STAR. RAILROAD PROPERTIES AND UNES IN BLUE.
The embellishment of stations and station grounds of railroads first began in this country
on the Boston and Albany and the Pennsylvania roads. It is now a feature all over the country;
it adds immensely to the pleasure and comfort of travel, and especially of suburban travel. So
strong is this attraction tiiat many an owner of a large subdivision in the suburbs not only
recognizes it, but he puts into practice at and near the station all the arts of landscaping at his
command. In a very few places especial pains have been taken to plant for winter effect,
78 PLAN OF CHICAGO
as well as for effects depending on full foliage and blossoming shrubs. New winter effects
should be studied in the parks, boulevards, playgrounds, and for all stations. It generally calls
for expenditure of thought; but very little, if any, extra expenditure of money is involved in pro-
curii^ charming results.
As a rule, the general aspect of our suburban stations is not pleasant. They should be
bright, cheery, and inviting in a high degree. More study, not more money, is needed for this
work. Let the eirchitectural schools and societies take up this topic; it demands artistic imag-
ination as well as skill. Let the man who undertakes this problem think of the hundreds or even
thousands of people who must habitually use the given station, and let him do his utmost to bring
into beii^ for these people something that shall be a joy to them. A delightful station con-
duces to cheerfulness as a man goes to work and as he comes home, while a shabby or neglected
station produces the opposite effect.
The problems of transportation have been viewed entirely from the standpoint of the para-
mount interests of Chicago as a commercial city. It has been assumed that what is for the great-
est advantage to the city as a whole, will also be of the greatest benefit to the transportation lines
both collectively and individually. Just as the realization of other portions of the plan call for
harmonious and imited action on the part of civic authorities, so the carrying out of the recom-
mendations in respect to tran^rartatJon will necessitate unity of action on the part of the mana-
gers of transportation facilities. Each must yield in some particulars in order to bring about
the great end sought; but whatever concesaons may be called for, they will be found msignifi-
cant when compared with the great gain which will result to the transportation systems themselves
from creating here in the central metropolis of the United States a complete system of hand-
ling both freight and passenger traffic so as to promote the convenience of the people, and to
enhance the commerce of the city of Chicago.
LXXXm. THE VTADUCT AT AUTEUIL OVER THE RIVER SEINE. PARIS, FRANCE.
CHAPTER VI
NATURAL FEATURES OF CHICAGO: NECESSITY FOR COMPREHENSIVE TREATMENT OF THE
STREET SYSTEM; STREETS WITHIN THE CITY: THE RESIDENCE STREET, THE AVENUE,
AND THE BOULEVARD: STREET ARCHITECTURE: THE STREETS OF CHICAGO: PROPOSED
NEW CIRCUITS
HICAGO has two dominant natinral features: the expanse of
Lake Michigan, which stretches, unhroken by islands or penin-
sulas, to the horizon; and a corresponding area of land ex-
tending north, west, and south without hills or any marked
elevation. These two features, each immeasurable by the senses,
give the scale. Whatever man undertakes here should be
either actually or seemii^ly without limit. Great thorough-
fares may lead from the water back into the country inter-
minably; broad boulevards may skirt the Lake front, or sweep
through the city; but their beginnings on the north, on the
south, or on the west must of necessity be points that move along determined lines with
the growth of population. Other harbors have channels winding among islands or around
jutting promontories until the landlocked basin is reached; but Chicago must throw out mto the
8o PLAN OF CHICAGO
open water her long arms of piled-up rock in order to gather in safety the storm-tossed vessels.
Other cities may climb hills and build around them, crowning the elevations with some dominating
structure ; but the people of Chicago must ever recognize the fact that their city is without bounds
or limits. Elsewhere, indeed, man and his works may be taken as the measure; but here the city
appears as that portion of illimitable space now occupied by a population capable of indefinite
expansion.
Whatever may be the forms which the treatment of the city shall take, therefore, the eflfects
must of necessity be obtained by repetition of the unit. If the characteristics set forth suggest
monotony, nevertheless such are the limitations which nature has imposed ; and unless the prob-
lem is faced squarely no treatment proposed will seem adequate or will prove lastingly satis-
factory. On the other hand^ the opportunity now exists to create out of these very conditions
a city which shall grow into both convenience and order, and shall possess all the means of
making its citizens prosperous and contented.
It is in the grouping of buildings imited by a conmion purpose — whether administrative,
educational, or conmiercial — that one must find an adequate method of treatment ; or again,
in far-stretching lines of lagoons, inviting the multitudes to seek recreation along the endless
miles of water front; or in broad avenues where the vista seemingly terminates with a tower by
day, or in the converging lines of lights by night, in each case the mind recognizing that there is
still space beyond. Always there must be the feeling of those broad surfaces of water reflecting
the clouds of heaven; always the sense of breadth and freedom which are the very spirit of the
prairies.
At no period in its history has the city looked far enough ahead. The mistakes of the past
should be warnings for the future. There can be no reasonable fear lest any plans that may be
adopted shaU prove too broad and comprehensive. That idea may be dismissed as unworthy
a moment's consideration. Rather let it be understood that the broadest plans which the city
can be brought to adopt to-day must prove inadequate and limited before the end of the next
quarter of a century. The mind of man, at least as expressed in works he actuaUy undertakes,
finds itself unable to rise to the full comprehension of the needs of a city growing at the rate now
assured for Chicago. Therefore, no one should hesitate to conunit himself to the lai^est and
most comprehensive undertaking; because before any particular plan can be carried out, a still
larger conception will begin to dawn, and even greater necessities will develop.
The two prime considerations for every large city are, first, adequate means of circulation ;
and second, a sufficient park area to insure good health and good order. In those portions
of the city where congestion has brought about hindrances to traffic and consequent waste, new
streets must be created at whatever present cost. Chicago has now reached that point in its
growth when the congestion within the city demands new and enlarged channels of circulation,
in order to acconunodate the increasing throngs that choke the narrow and inadequate thor-
oughfares. There is need, also, for an orderly arrangement of public and semi-public build-
ings, and for proper approaches to such structures, to express the power and dignity of the city.
One thinks of Paris, not as a place of so many millions of people, but as the beautiful capital, in
which the artistic sense of the French people has found fullest expression. London impresses
one, not so much on account of its size, but because of those monimients which the genius of the
Anglo-Saxon race has reared to mark great events and to conmiemorate great names in the
progress of civilization. In Berlin, in Vienna, and in every great city of Europe it is the plan of
N
\
LXXXVI. CHICAGO, PIAN OF THB STM
Proposed additional anerics and street widenings (onnge); the present park s]^eci (green); tbep'^
of tbose already existing, and around the center of tbe citj tbey s"^
A
y I
.^ i
/ I
ULEVARD SYSTEM PRESENT AND PROPOSED.
rts and playgrounds (batched green). The proposed diagonal arteries are in every instance
a conjunction with rectangular streets, the proposed circuit boulevards.
LXXXV. CHICAGO. PLAN OF A COUPLETE SYSTEM
\ND PLAVGROHNDS, PRXSENTING THE OTY AS AN ORGANISM IN WHICH ALL THE FUNCTIONS ARE
I* ■•
• •• •••
K>POSBD OVIC CENTER. THE ORAM> AXIS, OtUNT PAKE, AND THE HAXBOR
i Club by Jules Guerin.
• * *■
• •• •
• ••
STREETS WITHIN THE CITY 8i
the city, the character of its monuments, the impressive location of its public buildings, the pic-
turesqueness of its thoroughfares, the development of its parks and ^udens, or the treatment
of its water front that give the character and charm which create individuality and interest.
In all growing cities it has
been necessary, as it is now neces-
sary in Chicago, to break through
the conditions imposed by the
lack of an adequate and compre-
hensive plan at the beginning,
and to create, at large expense,
those thoroughfares and boule-
vards and public squares which
the increasing demands of popu-
lation and die larger requu-e-
ments of civic life require. The
longer the beginning has been
postponed the harder has been
the task and the greater the ex-
panse; but whatever the labor
and however large the cost, the re-
sult has always been found more
than compensation for the outlay.
And so it will be with Chicago.
Every year of postponement will
deprive its citizens of advantages
they might have enjoyed Wd
they carried out improvements
the neces^ties of which have
been universally acknowledged.^
People flock to those cities
where conditions of work are
good, where means of recreation
abound, and where there are
attractions for the senses and the
intellect. Persons of wealth and
refinement seek such cities as
their abiding-places; and those
WMH1. «. m I I ««- " «— ^ho have accumulated wealth in
LXXXVm. CHICAGO. MAP SHOWINC THE SUCCESSIVE CrPY LIBflTS, AND •*. U » ■ »
A LINE TRACED FROM THE SITE OF FORT DEARBORN THROUGH THE 3- City DeUl OH improvement Tt-
PRESENT CENTER DP POPU^TWN.^I^PRK^O THE GENERAL TEN- ,^^ (here. MoiCOVer, theiC is
no stronger appeal made to the
American citizen of to-day than comes from the call of one's native or adopted city to enter upon
the service of creating better siirroundings not only for one's self, but for all those who must of
necessity earn their bread in the sweat of their brows. Nor is the call of posterity to be denied.
8a PLAN OF CHICAGO
To love and render service to one's city, to have a part in its advancement, to seek to better its
conditions and to promote its highest interests, — these are both the duty and the privilege of
the patriot of peace.
The thoroughfares of a city may be divided into three classes: the street, by which is meant
LXXXtX. CHICAGO. DIAGRAM OF GENERAL SCHEME OF STREET CIRCULATION AND PARX5 IN RELATION TO
THE POPULATION.
The T*iiou9 denudes of population, niiigiDg fiom o to 95 penons per sere to 350 to 300 per acre are indicated bj differ-
erent den^ties of red color. The center of population is indicated by a star. Railroads are shown in blue.
the general type of artery; the avenue, on which tides of traffic and travel surge back and forth;
and the boulevard, designed primarily as a combination of park and driveway. The first con-
sideration for all thoroughfares is cleanliness, which is the result of a good roadbed kept in thor-
ough repair, and unremitting care on the part of the city cleaning department. In the con-
gested retail district the desirable street width is from 80 to 100 feet, about equally divided
STREETS WITHIN THE CITY
83
between sidewalks and roadway. Here the pavement should be smooth and noiseless; there
should be frequent islands of safety for the pedestrian crossing from side to side, and occasional
subway crossings; and the lighting, the signs, and every accessory of the street should be arranged
with regard to the dictates of good taste. For streets carrying heavy tonnage a width of from
Congress
ilwaukee
Avenue
Archer
Avenue
Halsted
Street
South Park
Avenue
1M*, BV
OUM or OMOMO
xc.
CHICAGO. THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF STREET CIRCULATION. SHOWING EXISTING
LINES OF TRAVEL (BLACK). AND PROPOSED SUPPLEMENTARY LINES (ORANGE).
Circulation from north to south and east to west is already established by the rectilinear svstem
of streets. There is need of additional facilities to be provided by street widenings and new
arteries. Circulation towards the center is partially established, but the arteries need extending
and developing, and circulation across the city from the northwest to the south and east and
from the southwest to the north is lacking. It is proposed to remedy this lack by extending
existing diagonal streets.
70 to 90 feet is desirable, with a roadway width of a little more than one-half the entire space,
and here the pavements should be of the most enduring character, regardless of noise.*
On residence streets the area devoted to pavement may well be lessened to from 20 to 36
feet, according to the amount of traffic, in order that greater area may be obtained for trees and
grass plots. This is highly desirable where, as in some sections is inevitable, houses are crowded
' The report to the Street Paving Committee of the Commercial Club on the street paving problem of Chicago, by John W.
Alvord, C. £., and an opinion by John S. Miller, Esq., on maintenance and repair of Chicago streets (1904) is at once so comprehen-
sive and so compact a docimient that it is sufficient simply to call attention to it. After discussing tendencies in this country and
Europe, Mr. Alvord reaches this conclusion: "Everywhere the main result is the same. So soon as wealth and population increase
to the pcHnt where luxury and comfort can demand it, the economical and more durable pavements of stone or granite on heavily trav-
eled streets give way to pavement of shorter life and higher maintenance cost, but of immensely greater comfort to the public in the
cessation of noise, smoothness for traffic, and ease with which they may be kept in condition."
84 PLAN OF CHICAGO
together or apartment buildings abound, so that the smaller children may have playgroimds
close at hand, and restful shade may prevail. A well-kept grass plot in front of the house induces
habits of neatness and comfort within ; and cool shade brings people from cellars and dark rooms
out into the light, thus contributing to good order and a higher morality.
The greatest disfigurement of the residence street is found in the varied assortment of poles
which crowd out the trees along the space between curb arid sidewalk. There are trolley-poles,
electric lighting poles, poles for telephone wires, and poles for police and fire-alarm purposes.
The natural development of the city will relegate the greater portion of such service into con-
duits controlled by the mimicipality and occupied in common by the city and the various public
service corporations. So fast as streets are cleared from these obstructions, the mimicipal-
ity should take over the planting and maintenance of all trees in street spaces; so that the plant-
ing may be eflfective and attractive throughout the entire way. The present method of leaving
such work to individuals necessarily results in a ragged appearance of the street, and also fails
to provide that diversity in variety of trees which gives beauty and individuality to the thoroughfare.
The avenue or traflSc street should be of sufficient width to draw to itself the streams of
traffic passing from one point in a city to distant points. Provision should here be made not
only for vehicular traffic, but also for street car lines; and the two currents may well be sepa-
rated, so as to avoid interference with each other. This end may be obtained as in Paris by
a road lined with trees, or there may be subdivision into various roadwa)rs, of which one is domi-
nant. These thoroughfares, when conforming to the rectilinear street s]^tem, should be
developed at intervals sufficiently frequent to accommodate the traffic that naturally would be
drained into them from the narrower parallel streets and from the intersecting streets. In order,
however, to care for the traffic which flows from northeast to southwest, and from northwest
to southeast, and vice versa, diagonal avenues become a necessity, in order to save time and
consequent expense.
Few cities have been laid out with sufficient foresight to provide for such diagonals. It
has usually happened that at first a small city area has been developed, in which the need of
diagonal thoroughfares was not felt; and then as the city expanded subdivision after subdi-
vision has been added, wherein the original street s)rstem has been followed, with no care or
thought for the increased traffic which growth begets. The one idea of those who make new
subdivisions is to secure the utmost space to sell immediately, leaving the future to take care
of itself. Hence it happens that, as a rule, when diagonal streets become of prime necessity they
must be created at large expense, and with great temporary inconvenience. Yet whatever the
expense, such thoroughfares must be opened; and the city itself is the gainer in each instance,
not alone by the saving of time, but also in the increased valuations for taxation which such
improvements inevitably bring about. Fortimately for Chicago a considerable niunber of diag-
onals already exist, and the large part which they play in promoting circulation offers the best
argument for their extension and completion. Blue Island and Milwaukee avenues, the haj^y
survivals of old country roads, now carry great streams of traffic, while Ogden and Archer
avenues and other lesser diagonals are of large utility as time-savers.
The third class of thoroughfares are the boulevards properly so called; the streets from
which all heavier traffic is excluded; the streets lined with commodious and even fine dwellings;
the streets where grass and shrubs and trees assert themselves, and where there may well be con-
tinuous playgrounds for the children of the neighborhood, such as many Chicago boulevards now
V
XCl. CmCACO. EXISTING AND (IS RED) PROPOSED DIAGONAL AKTERIES.
86
PLAN OF CHICAGO
provide. If in certain sections biiiMings for light manufactures abut upon these thoroughfares,
the working people will then enjoy a maximum of fresh air and light; and so will work
with greatest effectiveness. The
boulevard also affords appro-
priate sites for statues and foun-
tains, and all other forms of
adornment pleasing to the eye,
making attractive the city. The
smaller parks may well be ad-
jacent to the boulevards, or may
be expansions of them, thus
providing for larger playgrounds,
for places of assembly, and for
displays of plants and flowers,
and rare and beautiful trees,
which appeal to the almost
universal love of nature. The
principle governing the group-
ing of boulevards and avenues
is the establishment of through
connection, so that one thor-
oughfare shall lead into another,
and that circulation shall be
everywhere promoted but never
impeded.
Along the curved avenues
and the diagonals the archi-
tectural design should avoid the
building up of the thoroughfare
structure by structure, each one
following the whim of its owner
or the struggle for novelty on
the part of its architect. With-
out attempting to secure for-
mality, or to insist on imiformity
of design on a large scale, there
should be a constant display of
teamwork, so to speak, on the
part of the architects. The
former days when each archi-
tect strove to build h^s cornice
higher or more elaborate than the adjoining cornice are giving place, happily, to the saner
idea of accepting existing conditions when a reasonable line has bren establi^ed. There is as
STREETS WITHIN THE CITY 87
much reason why fagades should live together in harmony as there is for peatx among nei^bors.
In the case of open spaces, effectiveness of architectural design is to be obtained only by a
large imity in the entire compo-
sition. The harmonious treat-
ment of the buildings fadng the
circle opposite the railway sta-
tion in Rome and on the Place
Vendftme in Paris, and the plan
adopted for the plaza in front
of the Union Station at Wash-
ington, all prove that an impos-
ing effect can be produced by
a unified and grandly simple de-
sign. In Paris when attempt
was made to alter some of the
houses m the Place VendAme,
the owners were forbidden to
do so, because the proposed
alterations would have spoiled .
the architectural ^mmetry of
that circle.
Chicago, bemg a compara-
tively new city, escapes one
difficulty experienced in the re-formatton of cities of the Old World; here there are no buildings
possessing either historical or pic-
turesque value which must be sacri-
ficed in order to carry out the plans
necessary to provide circulation for
a growing metropoUs. The absence
of monumental structures, however,
imposes other obligations on the city
planner. All the boulevards of Paris
were established on the models of the
boulevards of Louis XIV., with two
lines of trees bordering the driveways,
and lines of houses on each side of the
street, so that the mass of verdure
almost entirely obscures the view of
the facades. In the new streets the
houses are to have a different system
of alignment, so as to form a broken
line which will admit of alternate
masses of masonry, and masses of green. In this manner the boulevards will gain in artistic
effect; while at the same time the line of the facades will be lengthened, thereby making the
88 PLAN OF CHICAGO
interior of the dwellings more healthful and agreeable. Much the same effect is produced in
many Boston and some Washington apartment buildings, which are constructed on three sides
of a court, leaving a mass of green open to the street.
In kying out new thoroughfares or treating old ones it must be remembered that with
respect to traffic streets the increase in population is constantly making larger demands for
width, and that on residence streets the city should not be burdened imnecessarily with the cost
of street construction and maintenance. Moreover, there is great economy in the distinct sep-
aration of residence streets from traffic streets. Whenever a street railway seizes upon a
residence street of ordinary size, that street immediately begins to imdergo transformation into
a business street ; and this change while working its slow way causes depreciation in land values
which, save on favorably located comers, amoimts to vutual confiscation. With good planning
these ruinous transformations become imnecessary, and the purchase of a home then becomes a
stable investment and not a gambling hazard. Again, in every coimtry experience has proved
that the clear and even remorseless cutting of main lines through the district to be developed,
and the division of great blocks into traffic arteries and service streets is the soimdest economy,
as well as the most effective means of reaching the sought-for end.
The second form of traffic interruption, arising from the intersection of lines of movement,
is complicated by reason of the fact that here the pedestrian movement, as well as the vehicular
movement, must be taken into consideration. There are times when men gather in the streets
for patriotic purposes, as on the Foiuth of July and Decoration Day; or because of an eager
desire to leam the news of great events, like election results. The right of the people to assem-
ble for discussion is fimdamental. All these requirements must be met by the creation of open
^)aces, which appropriately may be adorned by the statues of men of achievement, or may be
ornamented with foimtains and memorials of various kinds. These spaces for assembly and
for embellishment should be arranged so as to allow traffic to flow imvexing and unvexed.
Nothing could be more of a makeshift than the arbitrary regulations of the police in many of our
cities, where long detours are imposed on the wayfarer and vehicle alike, in order to diminish
that congestion which it is the task of the city planner to prevent. Yet in no city in the world
has this intricate and perplexing problem been completely solved.
It is charged against the French s)rstem of "star-places" that they invite congestion by con-
centrating traffic; and doubtless they are open to this accusation when placed on great traffic
thoroughfares, imless pains are taken to insist on a movement similar to that of a whirlpool, so
that each entering vehicle shall be required to move aroimd the circumference imtil its particu-
lar street shall be reached. The solution of a gentle junction of two lines in a common line for
a certain distance, like that of a railway, has advantages which the city planner will not over-
look. Whatever the form taken in a particular instance, the angles in the lots produced by
the jimction should be studied in order that the open space may not seem to be unfinished, and
also that the architect may not be compelled to utilize sharp points unfitted for architectural
treatment.
It should be borne in mind that directness is not the only consideration. Traffic wagons
when loaded naturally seek the shortest course, but the great majority of vehicles and of pedes-
trians as well are lured out of the direct line to streets made attractive by the shops, the trees,
or other embellishments. Often it happens that imattractive streets, in spite of being
shorter, are quite deserted because they are spotted with vacant sites, ugly buildings, and dreary
STREETS WITHIN THE CITY 89
spaces. Beauty allures while ugliness repels in city architecture as in everything else. More-
over, every consideration which alEects the planning of a city as a whole is truly architecture, and
wherever there is evidence of foresight and the relation of one part to another, there the mind
finds the highest satisfaction. Paris is the international capital because in its planning the
universal mind recognizes that complete articulation which satifies the craving for good order
and synmietry in every part.
It Chicago were to be relocated to-day, it would still be placed at the spot where it now is;
and if the streets were again to be mapped, the same general system would be adopted, because
Km. SYSTEM OF TRAFFIC CIRCUUVTtOH PROPOSED BY H. HE^NARD FOR FOBUC n.ACES.
A candnuouB gyistory movement reduces conflict of cuirenti to the minimum.
the present rectilinear street s}^em best comports with the line of the Lake front which nature
has unalterably fixed. The rectilinear system certainly accords with the ideas of rightness
inherent in the himian mind; and also it involves a minimum vmste of ground space. More-
over, the River, for the most part, allows the use of the right-angled system witfiout playing,
havoc with the orderly arrangement of the streets. It is only when and as the city increases in
population that diagonals become necessary in order to save considerable amounts of time and
to prevent congestion by dividing and segregating the traffic. Thus it happens that no rectilinear
city is perfect without the diagonal streets; and conversely, having the rectiUnear system, the
creation of diagonals produces the greatest convenience.
Now, while it happens that the planning of a new city imposes strai^tness as a duty, and
XCVU. THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF THE STREETS OF PARIS.
90 PLAN OF CHICAGO
diagonals as a necessity, it is eqtially true that a virtue should be made of these hard-and-fast
conditions. There is a true glory in mere length, in vistas longer than the eye can reach, in
roads of airow-Iike purpose that speed unswerving in their 0ight; and when and where the
opportunity of level ground permits,
this gjory should be sou^t after. Older
cities may indeed bend and curve their
new streets to preserve what is pictur-
esque or historic; but new cities, built
on level country, should see to it that
as subdivi^ons are platted, the streets
and avenues shaU be adequate to bear
the traffic which will come to them
from the city itself, and that such thor-
oughfares shall form an integral part
of the entire system of circulation.
At the same time the elliptical
avenue may be used to introduce va-
riety, and especially to serve as a link
to connect parks. Chicago had no
encircling fortifications to turn into
boulevards such as those which beau-
tify and distinguish the cities of Vienna, Brussels, Rouen, Milan, and especially Paris; but such
avenues may well be created in order to relieve the monotony of the straight streets. One such
great parkway is shown on the plans,
and it requires but a g^ce to recog-
nize the effectiveness of such a thor-
oughfare.
Having discussed the general prin-
ciples applicable to the arrangement
and development of streets within a
city, we oime to the specific problem.
The dty of Chic^o now extends for
about twenty-six miles along the Lake
front, and has a width of not more than
seven miles. It is apparent that as
population increases, the entire ter-
ritory between the present west-
em boundaries and the Des Plaines
River will become thickly settled, and
that as this occupation proceeds the
pressure of the increased numbers to
reach the business district and the Lake front will work serious ingestion, unless additional
thoroughfares shall be created in order to add to transit facihties inadequate even at the present
time. Obviously it is idle to expect those who plat subdivisions for the mete purpose of selling land
Mopcuu _
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STREETS WITHIN THE CITY
91
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XaX. THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF THE STREETS OF BERLIN
to make provision for a circulatory s)rstem sufficiently comprehensive to meet the requirements of a
growing city. That task belongs to the city itself, and the only way in which it can be accom-
plished is by the preparation and adoption of a plan for plotting all those lands adjacent to
the city which are reasonably certain
to be included within the enlarged
boundaries. The entire territory ex-
tending westward to the Des Plaines
should be laid out to meet future re-
quirements, with the requisite area
for residences, as well as wide thor-
oughfares for traffic, well-planned di-
agonals to gather and distribute the
travel, and adequate park spaces. As
the architects of Louis XIV. laid out
streets and avenues of Paris far in
advance of occupation, and as the
United States government adopted a
plan for the development of the entire
District of Coliunbia in accord with
the original L'Enfant plan, so the
authorities of Chicago should see to it
that when and as new subdivisions are platted in any portion of Cook Coimty not now included
within the city boimdaries, the thoroughfares in those subdivisions shall be fitted to care for die
traffic that will be imposed upon them
by reason of their location in relation
to the business district.
The functions of the diagonals and
circuits proposed for the area imping-
ing upon the business district are three
in niunber: first, to aUow traffic seek-
ing the center to reach its destination
expeditiously; secondly, to divert from
the center traffic not having its objec-
tive point within the central area; and,
thirdly, to afford direct passage throu^
the center in those cases where such*
crossing is necessary.
The matter of widening avenues
by means of regulating the frontage
is largely one of conservation. That
is to say, along streets where residences
predominate the thoroughfare should be widened by acquiring all the property to the line of the
buildings, so that as the street changes its character from a residence to a business thoroughfare
it shall not be narrowed at the very time when greater width is desirable. In short, the city should
c.
MMOOUOaO mOH " LCa TWAMrOMMmON* Ot mm*,** SV M. I. NilMNO.
THEORETICAL DIAGRAM OF THE STREETS OF LONDON.
92 PLAN OF CHICAGO
acquire and own the front yards, just as the Federal government owns the space between houses
and sidewalks in Washington. For example, Chicago Avenue gives one the impression of a
splendid boulevard, owing to the
fact that the buildings are set
well back from the street; but
eventually the avenue will be
narrowed to lOO feet, unless the
yard spaces shall be acquired,
as acquired they can be at
small expense, so long as the
purpose is to keep the space
open.
The diagonals are the most
useful and necessary arteries.
Those belonging to the first
circuit passing aroimd the busi-
ness center are as follows:
Chic£^ Avenue and Lin-
coln Park Boulevard to Milwau-
kee Avenue and Canal Street,
crossing the river north of the
CL cHiCAoo. viBw OP GRAND BOULEVARD. juuction o( its thiee bronches;
From the intersection of
Washington and Canal streets running to Halsted and Congress streets;
From Halsted and Congress streets to Twelfth and Canal streets, and from the latter inter-
section across the river at Six-
teenth Street to Archer Avenue
at State Street and Cottage
Grove Avenue at Twenty-sec-
ond Street.
For the most part, these
diagonab would run through
wholesale and manufacturing
districts, passing near some
of the railroad freight yards
and intercepting the traffic to
the city from the other out-
lying freight yards. This traf-
fic, once having reached the
circuit, would make use of it
as a means of getting around ^^^ cracAoo. view of im lake shore drivr
the congested district.
As the city increases in population, its retail and bu^ness district necessarily expands also,
the rise in values of the real estate forcing the wholesale interests farther away from the center.
STREETS WITHIN THE CITY 93
Traffic on these circuit arteries would thus change in character, and they might eventually be
made boulevards to carry traffic of every description except that of heavy teaming. The ar-
gument for the circuit as described is equally strong when considered with regard to any form of
cm. CHICAGO. PLAN OY THE CITY, SHOWING THE GENERAL SYSTEM OF BOUI^VARDS AND PARKS EXISTING
AND PROPOSED.
The boulevards are pUuuwd to fona a continuoiu system of circulation; the parks are related closelj to the boulevard
system, and are located, wherever pos^ble, in coniiecEioii with tbem.
traffic. It is based on a general experience in other cities, which proves that there is a gradual
evolution from mere utility to a service of a Ughter and more agreeable character. For exam-
ple, the Square of the Innocents in Paris, once a cloistered' cemetery, is now a playground, and
serves as a breathing space for the densely populated neighborhood. Some such evolution wiU
come in the case of the present freight yards lying along the nver, which ultimately will be
94
PLAN OF CHICAGO
abandoned for freight purposes, just as the fortifications of Paris and ^^enna have been trans-
formed from absolute utility to useful purposes of an entirely different nature.
When the freight 3rards shall
be abandoned as industrial sites
a large tract of territory will
be available for public pur-
poses, and the growing pop-
ulation might easily demand
the space for recreation; and
the fact that the available space
lies along the river will be of
double advant^e, since river
banks furnish an agreeable va-
riety when they extend through-
out a city.
In addition to the diagonals
shown on the di&gram are the
_ existing roads running be^de
the great railway rights-of-way.
CIV, CHICAGO. VIEW OP DREXEL BOULEVARD. oome oi tacse already extend
far out in the country, and also
penetrate inside the city. All
of them should be improved,
and mis^ng links should be
supplied. When, at perhaps no
distant day, the railroads enter-
ing the city come to be oper-
ated by electricity, no better
highways can be imagined.
They should be broadened, or-
namented, and made to serve
as great arteries. Outside the
city limits, and often inside
them, these highways beside
the railways penetrate popu-
lous districts, where they are
of increaang importance. They
should be drained, paved, and
planted in the best maimer, and
it is of first importance that
there should be no grade crossings of carriageways and railways. This work of improvement
which is already in progress inside the city should be carried on until every crossing within the
territory shown on the main diagram or encircling highways shall be eliminated.
CV. CHICAGO. VIEW OP MICHIGAN AVENUE, LOOKING NORTH.
STREETS WITHIN THE CITY
95
In time the streets within the business center will be taxed to the utmost on the surface,
on the overhead tramways, and underneath the present grades. Knowing this, it is important
to provide means to divert as much as possible the movement of people around the center when
business or pleasure does not necessitate passing into or through it. The topography of Chi-
c^;o is such that this may be accomplished readily. The shore of the Lake bends rapidly away
toward the northwest north of North Avenue, thus placing the center of population of that
section so far west that traffic
can go directly to the South
Side without passing through
the bu^ness district, if only
means to this end be provided;
and at the same time the
people of the West Side can
easily reach the North and
South Sides, south of the bu^-
ness districts, without passing
through the center.
The streets should be ar-
ranged and improved so as to
provide for such lines of
travel At present, nearly
every one going from one sec-
tion of the city lying outside
of the center to another sec-
tion outside of the ranter
comes into the business dis-
trict and passes through it
on his way. This movement
includes pedestrians, passen-
gers on the elevated and sur-
face cars, and wheeled vehi-
cles; it also includes teams
and trucks of every descrip-
tion, including those for fire
and police services. It is ob-
vious that direct and well-imptoved thoroughfares should enable this traffic to pass outside the
congested center from one section to another.
The main portion of the proposed grand circuit would extend from a park at the intersection of
Graceland and West avenues, aroxmd to Gage Park, thence on Fifty-fifth Boulevard to Michigan
Avenue, and thence north to Graceland Avenue at the Lake, a distance of nearly thirty miles.
This great circuit can be utilized for continuous pla^roxmds sweeping around the center and
connecting the dense populations that will inhabit the North and South Sides; and thus it will be
of inestimable value. To this circuit traffic would come from considerable distances on either
side of it, then follow its line until reaching a street leading directly to that portion of the city for
CVI. CHICAGO. INTERSECTION OF THE THREE BRANCHES OF THE
CHICAGO KIVER.
Plan sugeested to f&ciliutc tmffic ciiculfttion b^ means of two additional
bridga placed as piopoaed for the north-and-south boulevard at Mich-
igan Avenue, on a level above the present street, and connected eventually
with Uieets to be built on either side of the River.
. - ^» ^^.^^www^mTy^^^.:z:3g33:j Ha/<f4?«Hj*j^f»i«/*r*i*r*r*ncrr4'ilWWIWl>JLi,M ypg^g'^^^^S?^: -^
96 PLAN OF CHICAGO
•
which it is destined. By such a route congested business and manufacturing territories may
be avoided, and thus it would serve the piurpose of many diagonals that otherwise must be
created. As a continuous park it would furnish breathing space and playgroimds for a very large
number of people, and become a most popular avenue for pleasure as well as for necessary
cuxnilation. Moreover, the great circuit seems to be the line most normal to all the great exist-
ing radials, and thus it would be the most economical method of furnishing quick and easy com-
munication. Also it expresses in an ideal manner what is aimed at by all inner circuits, which are
angular because of the prohibitive cost of making them foUow a continuous ciurve; and also
because a ciun^ for the inner circuits would not develop the necessary articulation with existing
important rectangular streets. The degree of curvature of this outer circuit parkway insures
an extremely noble effect along its entire length and makes many picturesque angles with the
intersecting streets. As a whole, it is intended to be a stately highway, such as does not now
exist in any city.
The next circuit inside the grand one now largely exists in the form of the great park boule-
vards of Michigan Avenue, Grand Boulevard, or Drexel Boulevard to Washington Park, Fifty-fifth
Street to Gage Park; thence by the West Park boulevards through the West Parks, back by
Diversey Boulevard to the Lake, and south to Michigan Avenue. Another circuit is on the same
route as the one last mentioned, except that it does not extend so far to the south as Fifty-fifth
Street, but goes west to McKinley Park as shown on the diagranL
A circuit of very great ultimate importance would extend on Michigan Avenue from Chicago
Avenue to Twenty-second Street; thence on Twenty-second Street to Halsted; on Halsted
diagonally to the comer of Ashland and Twelfth streets; thence north on Ashland to Union
Park; from Union Park diagonally to the comer of Chicago Avenue and Halsted, thence east
on Chicago Avenue to the Lake. This route should be a great thoroughfare, affording every
facility for the movement of people on foot, in carriages, or in streets cars, and for teams as well.
It should be very wide and weU planted.
The innermost circuit utilizes Michigan Avenue, Twelfth Street, and Canal Street; thence
diagonally to Halsted and Coi^ress streets; thence again diagonally to Washington and Canal
streets; thence on Washington Street to the Lake. This circuit should have an underground
and an overhead loop for passengers, except that the overhead line should swing over Wabash
Avenue instead of over Michigan Avenue.
The following existing east-and-west streets should be widened and much improved : Grace-
land Avenue, Diversey Boulevard, North Avenue, Indiana Avenue, Chicago Avenue, Washington
Street, Congress Street extended and very much widened. Twelfth Street should become
a great viaduct, beginning at grade at Michigan Avenue and extending elevated over to Canal;
and it should not be less than 180 feet in width as shown on drawings. Sixteenth Street and
also Twenty-second Street should he widened. It would be wise, also, to widen each of the
section-limit streets running east and west, and also the half-section streets.
South Park Avenue (which is the extension of Grand Boulevard) should be carried over
the Illinois Central right-of-way from Twenty-second Street to Grant Park, over which it should
pass to that railroad's north freight yards; thence over the yards and the main branch of the
river, and on until it connects with the Lincoln Park Lake Shore Drive on the North Side. This
would form a continuous outer boulevard connecting the Lincoln Park and South Park systems
with the utmost correctness, and in a fine manner. This way would enable people to pass by
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• •• •
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STREETS WITHIN THE CITY 97
the business center when they do not desire to enter it, and would be an additional thoroughfare
to and from the center.
The cost of this improvement would amoimt to comparatively little for condenmation of
private property; the space to be taken would be only that necessary to widen Grand Boule-
vard to Twenty-second Street, and to carry through the route on the North Side portion. The
right-of-way over the railroad from Twenty-second Street to Grant Park, and from Grant Park
to the river should be obtained without cost.
The Chicago River, which gave to the city its location and fostered its conunerce, has become
a dumping spot and a cesspool; bridges of every possible style and condition span it at irregular
intervals and at aU angles; and year by year riparian owners have been permitted to encroach upon
its channel until there are to be found as many as four lines of docks, each newer one having been
built further into the stream. Tunnel-backs have restricted its depth for piurposes of navigation.
The widening proposed by the Sanitary District authorities and the fact that almost all the docks
are in a dilapidated condition will combine to make changes imperative. The opportunity should
be seized to plan a comprehensive and adequate development of the river banks, so that the
conunercial facilities shall be extended, while at the same time the aesthetic side of the problem
shall be worked out.
Boulevards should extend from the mouth of the river along the North and South branches
and on both sides, at least from the mouth of the river to North Avenue on the North Branch
and to Halsted Street on the South Branch. These thoroughfares would be an important factor
in the relief of traffic congestion down town; they should be raised above the normal traffic
level in order to aflFord greater facihty of circulation, and to allow warehouses to be constructed
below the roadway. This upper level would thus connect the points on the river at which the
street scheme calls for an elevation, as in the case of the north-and-south connecting boulevards,
the junctions of the three branches of the river, and Twelfth Street. These boulevards apart
from their practical advantages would become the most delightful route to the Lake.
We have now considered with some detail the disposition of the streets and avenues sur-
rounding the intense business center of Chicago. While this outer city area is occupied mainly
by dwellings, certain streets along which transportation lines pass, come to be lined with shops
throughout their entire length, so that one passes from the center of affairs into the residence dis-
trict without noting the transition. As a rule, however, the density and importance of the build-
mgs decrease from the center to the circumference; and in corresponding manner the highways
of circulation and exchange may diminish in width. It is essential, however, to provide encir-
cling or belt thoroughfares which act as coUectors of traffic, and also as distributors of it; so as to
prevent the inextricable congestion which inevitably arises when masses of people gathered along
converging lines attempt to penetrate the center at a single point. However diffcult it may be
to provide against such congestion in the case of older cities, a reasonable system of circulation
in connection with the business center of a comparatively new city like Chicago should be accom?
plished with comparative ease. The widening of some streets and the construction of needed
arteries is made less difficult by reason of the fact that the buildings which cover the greater part
of Chicago's area beyond the business center are not of a permanent character, and in the natural
order of things they must be replaced by others more substantial. Provision should be made
now so as to ensure that, as the transformation progresses, sufficient land area shall be left unoc-
cupied to provide good sanitary conditions, and attractive streets as well.
98 PLAN OF CHICAGO
The three requisites for this outer region, therefore, are: first, convenient means of access to
the main business center and to the subordinate centers, which are the day's working-places;
secondly, equally convenient means of access to the water and the fields and forests, where the
hours of recreation and refreshment are passed ; and, thirdly, as much light and air as pos^le-
for the dwellings and the schools, where the home-keepers are occupied with their daily tasks,
and where the children are trained, either for weakness or for strength, as physical conditions
largely determine.
CK. CHICAGO. THE PROPOSED PLAZA ON IflCHICAN AVENUB,
CHAPTER VII
THE HEART OF CHICAGO: OPPORTUNITY FOR CREATING A CONVENIENT AND UNIFIED CITYl
MICHIGAN AVENUE AS THE BASE OF A GREAT COMPOSITION: THE WIDENING OF HALSTED
STREET: A GROUP PLAN FOR THE FIELD MUSEUM, THE CRERAR LIBRARY, AND THE ART
msnrUTE: congress street as the MAIN AXIS OF THE CITY: THE CIVIC CENTER
HE Heart of Chicago is that portion of the city area between
Halsted Street and the Lake, and between the main river and
Twelfth Street. Within the next few years these boxindaries will be
enlarged to include Chicago Avenue on the north, Ashland Avenue
on the west, and Twenty-second Street on the south. The treat-
ment of this area, having a length of appproximately three miles
north and south, and a width of four miles horn Ashland Avenue
to the ends of the two great piers planned to extend into the Lake
at Chicago Avenue and again at Twenty-second Street, involves
the most serious problems encountered in the plan of the city.
As the population of Chicago spreads itself over the area between the Lake and the Des
Plaines River the pressure on the Heart of Chicago must of necessity increase in geometrical
ratio. The ground, being devoted to bu^ness purposes, will become so valuable that the build-
ings wiU rise to the height permitted by law. These buildings will be used for offices by corpora-
tions whose plants are scattered throughout the wide territory of which Chicago is the metropo-
lis; for shops and banks; for hotels; for theatres and other places of entertainment; for railroad
passenger terminals; for churches and public or semi-public structures, all of which will be re-
sorted to by himdreds of thousands of people who must pass daily into and out of this compara-
tively small area.
The main problem to be solved is the disposition of the various streams of traffic, so that
people may reach expeditiously the places to which their daily vocations call them. This prob-
loo PLAN OF CHICAGO
lem may be postponed, or it may be solved inadequately; but sooner or later, as experience
teaches, some solution must be found. Postponement multiplies ultimate cost, and meantime
creates a constantly increasing burden of discomfort and loss of business. True economy, there-
fore, dictates that the present moment, when already congestion is a menace to the conmierciaj
progress of the city, shall be seized upon as the proper time to begin a thorough regeneration of
the street system within the Heart of Chicago. Fortunately, the general lines on which the
changes should be made are determined by opportunities so obvious that the development of
a dignified and thoroughly convenient composition would seem to come about quite naturally.
All that is necessary is to take advantage of existing possibilities by combining the various
elements into a consistent whole. By so doing a unified city, wherein each portion will have
organic relation to all other portions, will result.
In considering the Heart of Chicago as a single composition it is desirable to begin with the
base line. Obviously this is found in Michigan Avenue, which is already a broad thorough-
fare, and is now in process of being widened to a width of 130 feet throughout that portion
which is bordered by Grant Park. At the present time, Michigan Avenue is the main connecting
thoroughfare between the North and South Sides; but it is much more than this. Office build-
ings, hotels, clubs, theatres, music-halls, and shops of the first order as to size and architecture
line the western side of the avenue, the Park opposite their fronts insuring light, air, and an
agreeable outlook. So desirable has this thoroughfare become that extensions of it to the north
or the south must enhance the value of the abutting real estate, because of the increased oppor-
tunities such extensions will create for continuing the building of structures of the highest class.
Michigan Avenue is probably destined to carry the heaviest movement of any street in the
world. Any boulevard connection in Michigan Avenue which fails to recognize the basic im-
portance of the avenue will be a waste of money and energy. Any impairment of the capacity
of this street at any point along its entire front, any weakening of this foundation, is an error
of the first magnitude.
At the present time the northern limit of this foundation of street circulation on the Lake
front is the water-tower on Chicago Avenue, and the south limit is the intersection of Twelfth
Street and Michigan Avenue. This avenue or parkway should be made as spacious as possible
along its entire length. It should be wide enough to provide two broad parallel roadways: one
to be used by those who wish to visit the shops, hotels, or theatres, and the other for the passage
of those who do not care to stop on their way through the city. Between these roadways should
be a broad sidewalk, and the walk next to the buildings also should be very broad. This road-
way should be made attractive by effective planting. The trees framing the boulevard may
well be of the clipped variety in order to carry out the architectural effect; and the lamps and
other accessories should be designed so as to give finish and unity to the composition.
The limit of width is fixed by the physical conditions of Michigan Avenue between Ran-
dolph Street and the river. Here the distance between the west side of Michigan Avenue and the
west line of the Illinois Central property is 246 feet. Michigan Avenue north of Randolph Street
is now 66 feet wide. The business blocks between Michigan Avenue and Beaubien Court are 130
feet deep, and Beaubien Court is 50 feet wide ; a total of 246 feet. Therefore 246 feet is the limit
of possible width, and this is reconunended as the width of the proposed boulevard connection,
every foot of which is part of this Lake front parkway — the great base of Chicago's street
circulation.
-:■ . w «-
ex. CHICAGO. PLAN OF THE COMPLETE SYSTEM OF STREET ORCDLATION-, RAILWAY STATIONS: PARKS, BOULEVARD
CIKCtnTS AMD EADIAL ARTERIES: PUBUC RECREATION PIERS, YACHT HARBOR. AND PLEASURE-BOAT PIERS; TREATMENT
OF GRANT PARE: THE MAIN AXIS AND THE CIVIC CENTER, PRESENTING THE CITY AS A COMPLETE ORGANISM IN WHICH
ALL ITS FUNCTIONS ARE RELATED ONE TO ANOTHER IN SUCH A MANNER THAT IT WILL BECO'ME A UNIT.
^--^^^r^^-^-"- -•^«^"'?»^^
•••••• • •
•"•
• •
• "•- ••
CXL CHICAGO. PLAN OF THE CENTER OF THE CITY. SHOWING THE PRESENT STREET AND BOULEVARD SYSTEM.
The proposed additional arteries and street widening* (orange); the present paries (green); and proposed new parki and play-
grounds within present shoreline (hatched green); (be present railway properties, lines, and stations, and the proposed n
stations arranged on a circuit bi
railway properties, lines, i
it boulevam (dark blue).
• •,
• • • •
"t^SuT;
cam. CHICAGO, proposed boulevard to connect the north and south sides of the RIVER: VIEW LOOKING NORTH
FROM WASHINGTON STREET,
The boulevard is raised to dlow free flow of east-ftnd-wesl teaming traffic under it, and both Mkhi^n Avenue and Beaubien Court are
raised lo the boulevard level. The raised portion throughout its entire lenelh, from Randolph Street to Indiana Sireel, extends from
building line to building line. It is approached from the ei — "' — — '— '— ' — ' ' "' ' — '■'""—' •" ■>— ~"
Punted for the Commercial Ctub by Jules Guerin.
THE HEART OF CHICAGO loi
In a study of this problem several years ago, "along lines that will not only meet the present
requirements of the city, both as to convenience and beauty, but which for years to come will
meet the needs of the city," conmiittees of the City Council, the Real Estate Board, the archi-
tects, the South Park Board, and the Lincoln Park Board, after consultation with the Mayor of
Chicago and other interested citizens, recommended the condemnation of all of the land lying
between Michigan Avenue and Beaubien Court from Randolph Street to the river, in order that an
adequate thoroughfare might be provided. These committees, which contributed very much to
a proper understanding of the conditions, were convinced of the necessity of taking all of the
property rather than a strip of it. This parkway should be reserved exclusively for the use of
pedestrians and lighter vehicles. It is the one great thoroughfare that can be so dedicated, and
commercial traffic should be excluded from it and amply provided for elsewhere.
From Twelfth Street to Chicago Avenue the only east-and-west streets crossing Michigan
Avenue that carry a heavy conmiercial traffic are the four east-and-west streets inmiediately
south of the river, and the four east-and-west streets immediately north of the river. These
eight east-and-west streets, together with the tracks and sidings of the Chicago and Northwest-
em railway on the north bank of the river, are the only points where conmiercial traffic comes
into collision with the north-and-south movement on the Lake front parkway. Naturally the
commercial cross-traffic that flows east and west through these eight streets is particularly dense,
being created by the railway terminals, docks, and warehouses east of Michigan Avenue, both
north and south of the river. By actual count on a given day it was foimd that between the hoiu^
of 8 and lo o'clock in the morning the pedestrian movement at the crowded crossing at the inter-
section of Michigan Avenue with Randolph Street was 12,484. In short, 104 people, sixty per
cent of whom were probably women and children, passed this comer every minute. On the same
morning it was isiscertained that between 7 and 10 o'clock 893 trucks and light vehicles moved
in the intersection of one of these streets and Michigan Avenue. Confusion and delay attendant
upon the concentration of such masses are certain to increase as the Illinois Central, the Michi-
gan Central, and the Wisconsin Central railways improve their terminals, as the warehouses of
this district are increased, and as more docks or harbors are developed at the mouth of the river.
By the plan for the connecting boulevard, which would begin its rise at Randolph Street,
heavy traffic would be diverted into Lake Street and other streets north, making the Randolph
Street intersection safer for pedestrian movement. The other streets crossing under the park-
way would be freed almost entirely of cross-traffic, and the loss of time resulting from impeded
movement would be reduced to the minimum.
Evidently if this Lake front parkway is to be dedicated solely to the use of the people, with
commercial traffic excluded, it cannot be carried across these east-and-west streets at the pres-
ent level of Michigan Avenue, without depressing these east-and-west streets. After an investi-
gation by engineers all thought of such street depression has been abandoned. Therefore the
boulevard connection must be elevated from Randolph Street on the south to Indiana Street on
the north, if collision between two classes of traffic, both of which are better served when kept
apart, is to be avoided.
It is not, however, necessary to carry the connecting boulevard very high. The present
grade of Michigan Avenue at Randolph Street can be raised one foot, or a little more, without
difficulty, so that from the street level at this point to the level of the boulevard connection one
block north, at the comer of Lake Street and Michigan Avenue, the total rise would be about
in
u
I lii 1:1 II II
1:1 ii II II II n
Jaiznntnr
n I — 1'=
II — 1:11 — iir
CXIll. CHICAGO. PLAN OF MICHIGAN AVENUE FROM TWELFTH STUEEI
The proposed double roadway is dcsi|;ned Co accommodate Che immense volume oE Irafiic which will be attracted to the Lake front. The vest niadi
interference from stationary vehicles. The boulevaid proposed Is raised above the three streets north and south ol the River (as shown in illustration Sa, C\'
ttaffic-tcvniog bdo
CXIV. CHICAGO, PROPOSED BonLK'AW *-^
View looking west acims Granl P"*'
G BL- A N T
PARK
□■Q^trfcu
^r^misr]
■HE RIVER, AND ITS EXTENSION ON PINE STREET TO CHICAGO /i
s for shopping tiaf5c and cBiriages waiting for Ihe crowds attending public functioiYs; the eastern roadway carries tiaSic through the business section without
Treating an arteir free from heavy teaming traffic at its crossings from the North to the South Sides. A double-deck bridge accommodates the north-and -south
light vehicles above.
IV ON MICHIGAN AVENUE AND PINE STREET,
■ relation of the porlc to the boulevard.
I04 PLAN OF CHICAGO
eleven feet, mth a grade of two and seven-tenths per cent. From Lake Street to South Water
Street the surface of the boulevard connection would rise only three feet more on a grade of three-
fourths of one per cent. North of South Water Street the surface woxild rise very slightly to the
bridge, from which point it would continue to the north practically on a level, until descending
^
.\*?^.-i. 'tr-9^
'y\^~7\
CXV. CHICAGO, PROPOSED BOULEVARD ON MICHIGAN AVENUE; VIEW LOOKING NORTH FROM A POINT EAST
OP THE PUBLIC LIBRARY. ALSO DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROPERTy EAST OF BEAUBIEN COURT. IN WHICH A RAIL-
WAY STATION MIGHT BE INCORPORATED.
on a gentle grade to Lincoln Park Boulevard, near Indiana Street, or to Ohio Street. The
grades su^ested are less than those existing on Fifth Avenue in New York.
Not one roadway only, but the whole boulevard connection, 246 feet wide, should rise grad-
ually from Randolph Street, and every store and building, both on the east side and on the west
side of the parkway, north as well as south of the river, would naturally open on the level of the
boulevard, exactly as the shops or hotels open on Michigan Avenue south of Randolph Street.
FmthermoTC, every building facing on the boulevard connection would have direct access to
the lower level under the elevation (except for a portion of one block at each end), so that goods
could be brought into the buildings conveniently. This tower level, well lighted, ventilated, and
THE HEART OF CHICAGO 105
protected from weather, would afford ideal a)nditions for handling commercial traffic. Part
or all of it could be solidly filled in if the authorities and the property owners deemed this more
desirable; it would not be necessary
to have all of the lower level open.
From this lower level at street inter-
sections there would be inclined road-
ways or ramps, giving comfortable
facilities for pedestrians or carriages
to reach the parkway. It would not
be necessary to place these ramps at
exactly the points where they are
shown in the design; but they could
be moved to the east side of the park-
way if for any reason that side offered
an advantage; or they could be elim-
inated if con^dered unnecessary.
The proposed bridge has two
decks. The lower one, being de-
cxvi. CHICAGO. VIEW OF PINE STREET, sigHcd (oT commerciaJ traffic, would
The Waterworks lower is shown as a marker in ^e visu of the pTOVlde for the piCSent hcavy team-
propoaed boulerard to connect the North and South Sides. r r ,* .
ing movii^ north and soutn over the
Rush Street bridge, without interrupting the teaming during the construction of the new
parkway, as the old bridge could be retained until the completion of the new one.
The grade on the lower level
approach up to the heavy teamii^
deck from the south would be 2J
per cent as compared with the pres-
ent grade of nearly 5 per cent up to
the present Rush Street bridge, and
5 per cent up to the present Dearborn
Street bridge. The advantage of the
double-deck bridge recommended in
this plan is set forth in the statement
of general requirements in the report
made by the commission of engineers
to the Board of Local Improvements
on the proposed north-and-south
boulevard ronnection. The engineers
say: "The bridges over the river may
be of either the bascule or the vertical
lift type, and two single bridges may be -^^ "^- ™^°u ™vb"X1" '"'"«' ™
used, one to accommodate boulevard
traffic, the other for team traffic; or one double-deck bridge may be used, the upper deck to
accommodate boulevard traffic, the lower deck for team traffic. In the case of two bridges, the
io6 PLAN OF CHICAGO
present Ru^ Street bridge may be continued in service during the construction of the new bouk-
vard bridge, and after completion of the latter may be temporarily used as a team traffic bridge.
Eventually, hovirever, Rush Street bridge will have to be replaced by a new bridge, and diiiing
the construction of the latter it will be necessary to divert the team traffic to other cros^ngs.
CXVIIL CHICAGO. MICHIGAN AVENUE. LOOKING TOWARDS THE SOOTH.
Propcsed double roadway ninning to a plaza at its intersection with Twelfth Street, and a suggestian for buildings to
surround the place, including rearrangement of the Twelfth Street railway station.
This will cause some inconvenience to this traffic, which is very heavy. The double-deck bridge
avoids this difficulty, as it can be completed and put in service without disturbing Rush Street
bridge; so that all the traffic of that bridge, both team and boulevard traffic, can be at once
transferred to the new bridge when this is ready."
In the plan here presented, the surface of the elevated boulevard connection at Lake Street
would be only 1 1 feet higher than the present Michigan Avenue, and the upper deck of the new
bridge would be only i6 feet higher than the surface of the present Ra^ Street bridge, and only
9J feet higher than the surface of the Jackson Boulevard bridge. Looking south, a pedestrian
would see before him Grant Park and the improved Michigan Avenue; the view along the river,
THE HEART OF CHICAGO 107
both east and west, would offer an interesting picture of the business activities of the city; on the
north the wide avenue would end at the water-tower, beyond which can be seen the vraters of
Lake Michigan opposite the Lake Shore Drive. Thus the plan presents one of the most mag-
nificent highways of the world. It seizes and develops the finest opportunity which Chicago
possesses for this purpose. The people of Chicago, during the past twenty-five years, have ex-
pended more than $220,000,000 in permanent improvements. This fact proves conclusively
that the city is bent on increasing its traffic facilities; yet because there has been no compre-
hensive plan for develop-
ment of city thoroughfares,
much of this work must
now be done over again.
The proposed comiecting
boulevard is but one de-
tail in the plan of a great
city, but it is one of the
most important. Unless the
Lake front is dealt with
as one great thoroughfare,
there is no excuse for the
expenditure of a large sum
of money on a single span
of it.
This great improve-
ment will come because it
is a part of a plan which
provides a basis of street
circulation, and which will
weld and unify the three
detached sides of Chicago;
because it will improve facili-
ties for commercial traffic,
and at the same time pre-
serve for the people the un-
interrupted use of their
greatest and most attractive »««»,.».»»»»«. om^imm*
highway.
No less important than
the widening and extension of Michigan Avenue is the improvement of Halsted Street, often called
"the king of streets" by reason of its extreme length. This street begins near the Lake, two and
a half miles north of Lincoln Park, and thence runs directly south through the center of popula-
tion of Chicago to the southern city limits and beyond them to Chicago Heights, a distance in
the city of over twenty miles. This street will inevitably be called upon to bear a very heavy
burden of traffic. One of the longest business streets in the world, it is bound to become also
one of the most important. The necessity for widening Halsted Street becomes apparent when
io8 PLAN OF CHICAGO
one considers that this thoroughfare, situated midway between Michigan and Ashland avenues,
is abtady congested by reason of the traflSc poured into it by those important diagonals, Mil-
waukee Avenue on the northwest and Blue Island Avenue on the southwest.
The conditions now prevailing near the intersection of Chicago Avenue and Halsted Street
need thorough transformation. There the smoke from railroad shops and yards and from
standing locomotives combines with the soot sent up by nearly four hundred trains that come
and go each day. Steamships, tugs, and other river craft add their contribution; the near-hy
tanneries and the garbage wagons contribute their odors; the great coal docks, with their noisy
buckets and intermittent engines, increase the din; and the streets are covered with the sawdust,
coal, and dirt spilled from the thousands of wagons that constantly use this crossii^. Close to
this intersection is a cosmopolitan district inhabited by a mixture of races living amid surroxmd-
ings which are a menace to the moral and physical health of the community.
The electrification of the railways within the city, which cannot be long delayed, will serve
to change radically for the better the dirt conditions in this neighborhood; but the slum con-
ditions will remain. The remedy is the same as has been resorted to the world over/ first, the
cutting of broad thoroughfares through the unwholesome district; and, secondly, the establishment
and remorseless enforcement of sanitary regulations w lfig h Bh^ i nsure HdEquate air^s pact; fo r t he '
dwellers.. in. crowded areas, and absolute' cleanliness in tbe~6tteeli;j?ii.the-si dowaIko, - flnd eve n
within the buildings. The slum exists to-day only because of the failure of the city to protect
itself against gross evils and known perils, all of which should be corrected by the enforcement
of simple principles of sanitation that are recognized to be just, equitable, and necessary- It
is no attack on private property to argue that society has the inherent right to protect itself against
abuses;^ ifnti when the city itself leads the way by the creation of broad streets well paved and
cleaned, restrictions against overcrowding, defective draina^, and the heaping of waste in yards
and side streets are but a logical sequence. In respect to street cleanliness and adequate air-
CXXI. CHICAGO. PROPOSED TWELFTH STREET BOCLEVAKII B
The proposed railway tenninats are stiown fronting on the Boulevard at its level, which is raised to i.llow north -and-south traffic to r- ■■
the intersection of Twelfth and Canal streets a diagonal thoroughfare is shown extending to the pnquioi il
Painted foe tbc C.'^d
Aililand Avenue
(NTERSECnONS WITH HICHICAN AVENTTE AND ASHLAND AVENUE, " ' '
ath. Access to the Boulevard is provided al alternate streets. The rise begins at Michi^ Avenue and nuj end at Canal Street. From
;r. Between this diagonal uid the River is shown tbe b^inniog of the proposed West Side railway stations.
Club by Jules Guerin.
•• ••
» a •
CXXII. CHICAGO. RAILWAY STATION SCHEME WEST OF THE RIVER BETWEEN tt
This plan provides for the railways at a levd te
Painted for the Comnteini
, AND CLINTON STREETS, SHOWING THE RELATION WITH THE CIVIC CENTER,
thai of the sticer, wilh the sUtiorw ftbove.
lub by Jules Uueiin.
.••
• •• •
THE HEART OF CHICAGO 109
space, Chicago may well take a lesson from Berlin, where the streets are kept clean by daily
washings, and where a property owner may build on only two-thirds of his land, leaving the remain-
der for a court. Chicago has not yet reached the point where it will be necessary for the munici-
pality to provide at its own expense, as does the city of London, for the rehousing of persons forced
out of congested quarters; but unless the matter shall be taken in hand at once, such a course
will be required in common justice to men and women so degraded by long life in the slums that
they have lost all power of caring for themselves.
In other localities in Chicago besides the one adverted to like conditions prevail, and must
be dealt with in similar manner.
CXXm. CHICAGO. ALTERNATE RAILWAY STATION SCHEME WEST OF THE RIVER BETWEEN CANAL AND CUNTON
STREETS.
This plan provides for the lailw&ys at & level above that of the streets.
It is proposed ultimately to widen La Salle Street from Van Buren Street south and to
connect it with Wentworth Avenue, also widened; likewise to widen La Salle Avenue from the
river north, — changes which will come about with the new arrangement of railway stations. By
this means a much needed thoroughfare can be opened between the North and the South Sides;
and when this is accomplished an open space should be created at the intersection of La Salle
and Congress streets, aroimd which should be grouped great business exchanges. This area
would become the financial heart of the city, being directly connected in the best manner with the
existing banking and oflBce-building neighborhood. Such an axis as La Salle Street, running
from the South Side north to Lincoln Park, and having no street cars on its surface, would seem
to be demanded for that future time (perhaps not so far off) when the inhabitants of the city
shall number several times as many as to-day. Canal Street, also, should be widened and ex-
tended, as has already been discussed in the chapter on Transportation.
The opportunity for one of the most comprehensive, convenient, and dignified compositions
known to city planning anywhere comes from the combination of elements already existing in
mOR, SHOWING PROPOSED ARRANGEMENT.
ad veaaa; facht club*, at the water's edge; paHcnger fteamer landiDgs and lagoooi.
Janin.
1 ■* •
• •••
■D UARBOK: THE EASTERN fA(i^DE OF THE CITY ON MICHIGAN AVENLE. A
THE HEART OF CHICAGO iii
the Harvard Medical School, and near other educational institutions which have been established
on lands reclaimed by the city in much the same manner that Grant Park has been created. In
New York the large extension of the Metropolitan Art Museum in Central Park indicates dearly
the growing demand for great galleries adapted for the exhibition of works of the fine arts. >^
The assembling in Grant Park of three monumental groups so as to form one composition
offers opporttmity for treatment impressive and dignified in the highest degree. It is such op- /
portunities which when properly utilized give to a city both charm and distinction, because of the
satisfaction which the mind obtains in contemplating orderly architectural arrangements of great
magnitude both in themselves and in relation to the city of which they thus become an integral
part. On the other hand, the failure to realize such possibilities inevitably creates dissatisfaction
over lost opportunities; and this feeling increases with the years and is shared by all the people.
Economy, as well as effectiveness, dictates the adoption of a group plan; for the buildings
have kindred uses, and should express relationship both in their architecture and also in their
landscape settings. Indeed they may well be foimd together by porticos to protect the visitor
against sun and rain; and such porticos would offer abimdant means of adornment by statues,
paintings, and commemorative inscriptions. One has only to recall the impressiveness of the
Peristyle at the World's Fair to understand the value of the colonnade as an adjimct to buildings
beautiful in themselves.
The landscape setting of the Grant Park group offers opportunities of the highest order.
The broad terraces need for their relief the green of trees and the judicious use of parterres;
and the walks and drivewa)rs, if well located, will give the sense of imity, while at the same time
adding to the convenience of the visitor.
It should be realized clearly that as Michigan Avenue is widened and extended, the great
traffic which this thoroughfare is sure to bear will come to require large open spaces for gather-
ings of people to witness parades and pageants and for similar occasions. Much of the pass-
ing from north to south will utilize the lakeside drive; and at gala times, when the harbor is
illuminated, the terraces of Grant Park will afford unsurpassed views of the spectacle. Such
pleasures make a universal appeal, and give charm and brightness to the life of people who must
of necessity pass long siunmers in the city.
The yacht harbor, planned to extend the entire length of the park, is enclosed on the north
and south by broad recreation piers stretching for a mile and a half into the Lake; and provis-
ion is made for transit lines reaching to the ends of the piers, so as to make these places parks
of decided value. The movement among the yachts and small craft ; the life of the club-houses
by day and the bright lights by night already lend interest to the Lake front; and as the city
grows, the increased boating facilities will afford opportimities for indulging in one of the most
universally popular sports, while at the same time imparting life to the otherwise monotonous
stretch of water.
Such a treatment for Grant Park is not only feasible, but it requires no radical change in
present procedure. It is the obvious and natural manner in which the work will be conducted
imless some violent change or some regrettable failure to act shall work distortion in a plan that
must commend itself to the judgment of those who study the whole problem of the develop-
ment of the Lake front in its relation to the city of Chicago. No additional expense is involved ;
for public money is being spent continuously to accomphsh the same ends. The plan merely
provides for the most effective and satisfactory manner of expending that money.
112 PLAN OF CHICAGO
The advantages of developing Grant Park as the intellectual center of Chicago cannot be
overestimated; for art everywhere has been a source of wealth and moral influence. Already
the students at the Art Institute number more than four thousand, and as art collections and
opportimities for study increase Chicago will draw pupils from many states. The influence of
this training in raising the standard of public taste and in creating demands for better physical
conditions must be manifest. The possession of Saint-Gaudens' statue of Lincoln is a distinc-
tion to the city of Chicago, in the same sense that the Sistine Madonna enriches Dresden. Take
the Louvre from Paris, the Rubens collection from Antwerp, the National Gallery and the British
Museum from London, the Pubb'c Library and the Art Museum from Boston, the Metropoli-
tan Museum from New York, and the Library of Congress from Washington, and the conunercial
loss to those cities would be very considerable. When Chicago realizes all the advantages of
the location in Grant Park of three great groups of buildings devoted to the intellectual and
aesthetic cravings of man, it must be apparent that the city will have a great asset in the gifts
of those pubUc-spirited citizens who have foimd satisfaction in leaving to the public useful
memorials of the successful lives of the givers.
Public-spuited citizens have left precious legacies by providing for the intellectual and
aesthetic needs of the people ; and it should be esteemed a high privilege as well as a sacred duty
to administer those gifts in such a manner as to accomplish the most effective results from the
benefactions. So to manifest appreciation encourages others to emulate the good example; and
simply by taking thought the city gains constantly by the addition of monuments which bene-
fit the whole conununity.
South of Grant Park, and extending along the lagoon between Twelfth and Twenty-second
streets, the plans show a great meadow developed as an athletic field, with central gjmmasium,
outdoor exercising groimds, swinuning beaches, and such other features as have been found ad-
visable in the playgroimd parks.
Another great opportimity comes from the fact that the river flows through the center of
the business district. It has been the experience of European cities that the banks of a river,
although at first devoted only to conunercial purposes, sooner or later are transformed into
places which combine business uses with drives and promenades for traflSc and for the pleasure
of the people. The treatment of the Thames in London, the Seine in Paris, the Danube in
Vienna and Budapest, the Scheldt at Antwerp, the Riverside Drive in New York, and the pro-
posed Potomac Quay at Washington are, all of them, instances of a development which indicates
dearly what must also result to the Chicago River when the city comes to give attention to other
needs in addition to those of commerce and manufactiu^s.
The grouping of railway passenger terminals along Canal and Twelfth streets will add
another element of good order, convenience, and architectural dignity; for it is not to be conceived
that as the railroads replace their present inadequate structures the new buildings will be less
important or less dignified than those which have been built in other cities. It is to be supposed
rather that the greatest railway center in the world will be able to command terminal stations
equal in every respect to any that have been constructed elsewhere.
An adequate study of existing conditions in the Heart of Chicago must show the necessity
of providing adequate means of circulation from west to east throughout the business center.
Chicago Avenue is already a wide thoroughfare capable of carrying the heavy traffic which in-
evitably it will be called upon to bear; and the widening of Twelfth Street is required as a means
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THE HEART OF CHICAGO 113
of giving access to the Lake front to the dense population west of the River, which is now prac-
tically shut off from the enjoyment of this most attractive feature of Chicago life. It would be
desirable to widen several of the east-and-west streets that pass through the present buaness dis-
trict, but such a course would
be inexpedient, on account of
the prohibitive cost of the land
and buildings abutting on those
thoroughfares. For this reason
it is not proposed to widen east-
and-west streets north of Con-
gress. It is within reasonable
financial possibility, however,
to develop a great avenue, ex-
tending from Michigan Avenue
throughout the city and west-
ward indefinitely. This would
result in providing for all time
CXXXm. PARIS. THE PLACE DE LA CONCORDE. LOOKING OVER -mE t° ^^^ ^ thoroUghfare which
SEINE TOWARDS THE MADELEINE. would be to the city what the
ThisBquore bone of the great cite uktory centera, placed on the grand axil < , i ■ i. ^i. i. j tii.
of the dly (the Champs Elyseea) and the ciicuit d the grand boulevarts. baCKbOne IS tO the bOdy. 1 hUS,
and thus only, is it possible to
establish organic unity, and, in connection with the improvement of the streets above men-
tioned, to give order and coherence to the plan of Chicago.
The selection of Congress Street
for development into a broad cross
avenue is urged by many considerations.
, First, this particular street coincides
substantially with the center of the
business district; and also is about
equidistant from the other east-and-
west streets (Twelfth and Washington,
and Twenty-second and Chicago Ave-
nue) which most readily lend them-
selves to development as arteries in the
street system; and it is also equidistant
from the two great east-and-west rail-
road rights-of-way at Kinzie and at
Sixteenth streets. Secondly, the very
fact that Congress Street now exists cxxxiv. Dresden, the zwingerhof.
only in disconnected portions, and that * *«™*'' anangement <A architerture and publk gardens in the
' '^ ' center rf a aty,
the buildings throughout the proposed
cuttii^ are comparatively inexpensive, offers a very strong argument for its selection on
the score of economy. The widening of another street would mean the destruction of
two Montages in order to obtain sufficient width without encroaching on the building space
114 PLAN OF CHICAGO
on parallel streets. Thirdly, Congress Street stands in such relations to Grant Park that its use
as a central axis of the city allows park and avenue to sustain reciprocal relations in the highest
degree conducive both to convenience and to good order. FourUily, the opening of Congress
Street woxdd create, in combination
with Van Buren Street on the north
and Harrison Street on the south, a
triple set of arteries at the center of
things. There are no arguments fav-
oring the selection of another street
which present such a combination of
advantages as is to be foimd in the
choice of Congress Street. The dia-
gram showing business occupancy
indicates that Congress Street is
already very near the center of the
great commercial activities, and also
that this center has steadily moved
in a southwesterly direction.
Thus far the argument for the
CXXXV. VIENNA. THE KINGSTRASSE. SHOWING THE PUBUC i • t >-. c-
BUILDINGS GROUPED ABOUT SQUARES AND GARDENS ALONG SeleCtlOU Of CongTCSS StTCet haS dealt
with purely practical questions, which
in themselves would seem to be conclusive. The choice of Congress Street is quite as logical
from an aesthetic point of view. In a sense the Field Museum will be one of the important
buildings in the city. The site selected
is exactly opposite the intersection of
Congress Street with Michigan Avenue.
To create a great cross avenue without
utilizing the element of symmetry which
this noble building stands ready to
furnish would be to set at defiance
every law of civic order, and to perpe-
trate a crime against good taste that
could never be atoned for. It is incon-
ceivable that in the present state of
public taste any people would permit
such a barbarism.
The new Congress Street should be
created with a width, from Wabash
Avenue westward, of from 200 to 250
feet to Canal Street; and thence to the *
civic square the width should approxi-
mate 300 feet. The roadways should be divided for the various kinds of traffic, and it should
furnish opportunities for the highest class of adornment known to civic art. Theaters, public
and serai-public buildings, retail shops, and all the other structures which are to be found on
r
CXXXVII. CHICAGO. VIEW OF THE PKOPOSED DBVELOPHEIfT IN THE CENTER OF THE CITY. FROM TWTEVTV
A.VD LVI
Punted for tbe Comio
)?n> STREET TO CHICAGO AVENUE. LOOKING TOWARDS THE EAST OVER THE CIVIC CENTER TO GRANT PARK
ICHIGAN.
Club by Juica Guerin.
'^'^-^^uv^^u:»*iiiiiiHiw'aH^j^ii(t:ta^^ r ff:HH55t*^:;=:saSi
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THE HEART OF CHICAGO 115
^equented streets would come to be built along a thoroughfare which from the time of its open-
ing would be of the first importance.'
As it is proposed to group in Grant Park the buildings pertaining to art, literature, and
science, so it is planned to create on the axis of Congress Street a composition representing the
dignity and importance of the city from the administrative point of view. Where Congress
Street intersects Halsted Street, a civic center should be established. At this center radiating
arteries natiuBlIy conveige. The population in Chicago has stretched itself along the Lake
shore; but the center of density has moved steadily in a southwesterly direction. Beginning
with the original Fort Dearborn reservation, the line of density of population passes through the
present location of the City Hall and the Court House, thence a little to the south of the proposed
civic center. Moreover, the point selected for the civic center is the center of gravity, so to speak,
of all the radial arteries entering Chicago. Even now the proposed center is not far in advance
CXXXVni. BERUN. SPREE ISLAND, IN THE HEART OF THE OTY.
of the growth of the city; while at the same time land values in the area selected are not excessive.
The buildings comprised in the civic center naturally fall into three divisions, represented by
the City of Chicago, by Cook Coimty, and by the Federal Government; and inasmuch as a single
buQding would be insufficient to accommodate the offices either of the city or of the general gov-
ernment, there should eventually be three groups. Of these three the city group would predomi-
nate, with the city hall as the central building. The city administration building should accom-
modate the mayor and the common council, together with the clerks and officers directly connected
with the administrative and legislative departments; also the headquarters of the fire depart-
ment; the offices of the board of education, includmg those of the superintendent of schools;
the offices of the city attorney, the auditor, the board of assessors, the tax collectors, the license
department, the board of local improvements, the elections bureau, and others of like chanicter.
Ultimately there should be a separate building for the department of public works; but for
the immediate future one wii^ of the administrative building may be set apart for the engineers
and surveyors, for the electrical department, and the departments of sewers, water, and gas, and
the superintendent of streets. The need of special quarters for this division of the public service
' While Congreaa Street ia the ideal location (or the giand uds, the development of one of the parallel streets and a corrcspoiid-
ira change in the site of the Field Museum and ol the dvic center nugbl be icaorted to, if obstacles to the use of Congiess Street arise
which shall seem insuperable.
ii6 PLAN OF CHICAGO
arises not only from the extent and character of the work of the various bureaus, but also because
of the great number of people who of necessity resort to them in order to obtain permits for con-
structing and repairing buildings, for establishing electrical, gas, and water connections, and to
transact the vast amoimt of business arising in a department that affects every business, institution,
and home.
The department of public health, requiring extensive laboratories, should include an emer-
gency hospital, rooms for the commission on insanity, and a detention place for the insane, as well
as a bureau of vital statistics; offices for the health, food, and milk inspectors; quarters for the
coroner, including autopsy and inquest rooms and a public morgue.
The hall of records should be accessible to the courts and the other departments of the public
service, and to the general public. The building should be so constructed as to secure its con-
tents from possible danger from fire or the results of dampness; and it should be so arranged and
administered as to make the records immediately available.
The court-house building oflFers architectural opportunities of the first order; and here again
the dignity, majesty, and impartiaUty of justice should be made manifest in every appointment,
so as to teach the lesson that *' obedience to law is liberty." The highest of the city courts, with
chambers for the judges; the grand jury quarters; trial jury rooms, with accommodations for
lodging juries over night; the offices of the district attorney; the marriage license department;
and the law library should be housed in this edifice.
To the building used as the police headquarters would be assigned the central police court
with its official clerks, stenographers, bailiffs, bond and warrant officers; the city prison, with its
complement of vaults for criminal records of all kinds; the headquarters of the chief of police and
of the staff of detectives; a drill-room, assembly-room, g3mMiasium, and practice gallery for shoot-
ing, and arsenal. One reason for making this building one of the civic group is to promote the
convenience of the citizens who are called to the court for jury duty or as witnesses.
The central administrative building, as shown in the illustrations, is surmounted by a dome of
impressive height, to be seen and felt by the people, to whom it should stand as the symbol of civic
order and unity. Rising from the plain upon which Chicago rests, its effect may be compared
to that of the dome of St. Peter's at Rome. The buildings are shown raised on terraces one story
in height. These terraces would give great dignity to the structures, and would mark the tran-
sition from them to the great open space on which they front. The motifs surmounting the ter-
races, with such other accessories as refuges, shelters, subway stations, balustrades, and lamps,
would combine to unite the square into an harmonious whole. The group of buildings may be
connected by subways, or even bridges treated in the form of colonnades or arcades of a decorative
character, all contributing to the general effect of the square.
Space at the civic center should be reserved for the next county building which Cook County
will build when the present one becomes too small to accommodate the county business. Experience
shows that in this country a public building is no sooner finished than it is foimd not sufficiently
extensive to provide for the public business that it was meant to serve.
The designs for this square and its buildings are suggestions of what may be done, for the
report does not seek to impose any particular form on structures that when executed must carry out
a program written by the growing necessities for adequate accommodations for administrative
offices and the rapidly developing demand on the part of the public for order and beauty in the
arrangement of these elements of city life.
• • » •
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THE HEART OF CHICAGO 117
The administration building, located on the main axis, is placed in such a manner that, while
dominating the square, it does not obstruct the flow of traffic which will be poured into this open
space from the streets reaching it, and in particular from the great radial arteries. The latter
thoroughfares are schemed to center upon an obelisk in the middle of the square, the base of
which it is proposed to combine with a decorative fountain, treated with the greatest richness,
since it will be located on the spot which is to be the center of interest in the city.
The Federal group should be only less extensive than that devoted to city purposes. The
Chicago Federal Building, completed in 1905, is already inadequate. Indeed it has been the cus-
tom of the general government to attempt to house many and divergent departments of adminis-
tration under one roof. In a great city like Chicago the dignity and the business of the United
States courts demand a building exclusively for that one purpose. The post-office is now seeking
a site on the West Side. Thus the opportunity is at hand to begin the civic center group with a
building of importance, by locating it in connection with ground reserved on the plan as a public
square which finally shall be surrounded with administrative buildings. The custom-house and
the internal revenue office; the various offices of the engineers employed on lake and river im-
provements and surveys; the lighthouse service; the in^ctors of steam vessels; the life-saving
service; the recruiting officers for the army and the navy; the emigrant inspectors; and the vari-
ous other officials charged with enforcing the rapidly growing body of laws for the protection of
health and the promotion of good order, — lall this army of employees of the United States should
have suitable quarters in buildings erected for the exclusive use of the government. The Federal
buildings alone, if they are to be adequate to the demands of the public business, would require a
group of buildings of the first order in so far as archifecture and location are concerned.
The civic center will be dependent for its effectiveness on the character of the architecture
displayed in the buildings themselves, in their harmonious relations one with another, and in the
amoimt of the space in which they are placed. Surely, the results attained at the World's
Columbian Exposition in 1893 so amply proved the truth of these principles that it is not
necessary to enlarge upon them. The attainment of harmony, good order, and beauty is not
a question of money cost, for in the end good buildings are far cheaper than bad buildings.
What is required is enlightened understanding and competent planning; the great buildings of
the world are simple and inexpensive when compared with many of the over elaborate struct-
ures of the present day; but for centuries they have served their important purposes and the
people will not give them up, because they have become part and parcel of their life. They
typify the permanence of the city, they record its history, and express its aspirations. Such a
group of buildings as Chicago should and may possess would be for all time to come a distinction
to the city. It would be what the Acropolis was to Athens, or the Forum to Rome, and what
St. Mark's Square is to Venice, — the very embodiment of civic life. Land should be acquired
in quantity sufficient to carry out a plan commensurate with Chicago's needs, and with her
dominating position in this region. This plan first should be worked out by the architects,
and then should be realized by the concerted action of the commimity.
Important as is the civic center considered by itself, when taken in connection with this
plan of Chicago it becomes the keystone of the arch. The development of Halsted Street, and
Ashland and Michigan avenues, flanked by the great thoroughfares of Chicago Avenue and
Twelfth Street, will give form to the business center; while the opening of Congress Street
as the great central axis of the city will at once create coherence in the city plan. Nowhere else on
ii8 PLAN OF CHICAGO
this continent does there exbt so great a possihOity combined with such ease of attainment. Simply
by an intelligent handling of the changes necessary to accommodate the growing business cd
Chicago, a city both imified and beautiful will result. The Lake front will be opened to those
who are now shut away from it by lack of adequate approaches; the great masses of people
which daily converge in the now congested center will be aUe to come and go quickly and
without discomfort; the intellectual life of the ci^ will be stimulated by institutions grouped
in Grant Park; and in the center of all the varied activities of Chicago will rise the towering
dome of the civic center, vivifying and unifying the entire composition.
CXIi. VIEW EASTWARD TO LAKE UICHIGAN.
CHAPTER Vin
THE PLAN OF CHICAGO: THE RESULT OF SYSTEMATIC STUDY: THE COST INVOLVED IN CARRY-
ING Oin" THE WORK: THE PEOPLE ARE FINANCIALLY ABLE TO REALIZE THE PLAN: THE
ELEMENTS INVOLVED: HOW THE COST MAY BE DIVIDED: THE FINAL RESULT.
HE plan of Chicago as presented in illustration and text is the
result of a systematic and comprehensive study, carried on during
a period of thirty months, with the sole purpose of mappii^ out an
ideal project for the physical development of this city. Perfection
of detail is not claimed, but the design as a whole is placed before
the public in the confident belief that it pomts the way to realize
civic conditions of unusual economy, convenience, and beauty.
It is fully realized that a plan calling for improvements on
a scale larger and more inclusive than any heretofore proposed
seems, on first consideration, beyond the financial ability of the
community. K, however, the plan meets public approval, it can be executed without seriously
increasii^ present burdens. TTie very growth of the city, creating as it does wealth greater than
mines can produce, gives a basis of bond issues in excess of the utmost cost involved in carryii^
out this plan. The increase in the assessed value of real estate in the city of Chicago for the past
ten years exceeds the expense required to put the plan into execution; and at the same time
the very character of the proposed changes is such as to stimulate the increase in wealth. The
public, therefore, has the power to put the plan into effect if it shall determine to do so.
It is quite possible that some revision of existing laws may be necessary in order to enable
the people to carry out this project; but this is clearly within the power of the people themselves.
The realization of the plan, therefore, depends entirely on the strength of the public sentiment
in its favor. And what hope is there that the people will de^re to make Chicago an ideal city ?
A brief survey of the past will help to form an opinion on this subject.
Sixty years ago, when Chicago was scarcely more than a village, it became apparent that in
119
I20 PLAN OF CHICAGO
order to secure proper drainage the street levels must be raised to a considerable extent through-
out what we know as the old city, from the main river to Twelfth Street, and also for a distance
on the West and North Sides. This project, albeit a very formidable one for that time, was
promptly entered upon and duly carried out, although it involved raising all the streets and most
of the buildings throughout that large territory. For that day and generation the undertaking
was much more serious than the reconstruction of the city thoroughfares now proposed.
Again, some fifty years ago, when the idea of creating great metropolitan park areas was
new, Chicago undertook to acquire and improve a chain of parks surrounding the city on three
sides. This scheme, which has well supplied the needs of Chicago imtil recent times, was carried
out in such a manner that it never was burdensome. The creation of a park system for Chicago
was not undertaken from motives of utility, but purely because of a desire to make the city
attractive; and the success was magnificent.
Later, in the Eighties, the purification of the water of Lake Michigan by the diversion of the
sewage became a public issue. Once again the people of Chicago rose to the occasion; and
after years of hard work the Drainage Canal, built at a cost of $60,000,000, has been completed.
Next came the World's Fair, in the early Nineties, and here also a result was accomplished
which has never been surpassed either in scope or in architectural beauty. The cost of the Fair
(over $20,000,000 for grounds and buildings alone) was very large for that day. The fact that
the Fair came into being here indicated that this people, generally regarded as a commercial com-
mimity, were deeply appreciative of the higher forms of good order and municipal beauty.
The Chicago World's Fair, like the raising of the grades of the city, the creation of a complete
system of parks and boulevards, and the building of the Drainage Canal, went far beyond any-
thing of the same kind ever before imdertaken by a city. These four works are the greatest ones
which have been achieved by Chicago. They have proved the readiness of the people to take
up large schemes of public improvement which at the time of their inception required great
foresight and great faith in the future. Two of them were demanded by considerations ex-
clusively practical, while the other two were not so regarded, but on the other hand were the
expression of the deeper sense in man of the value of delightful surroundings. If an accurate
statement of the costs of the four improvements could be made, it would probably show that
about equal sums have been spent on the practical and on the aesthetic side.
Besides the public enterprises mentioned, the people of Chicago, either collectively or as
individuals, have established many agencies for the improvement of the intellectual, social,
moral, and aesthetic conditions. The Chicago Orchestra occupies land and buildings on
Michigan Avenue which have a present value of over a million and a quarter of dollars; and
during the past twenty years private subscriptions have amounted to at least another million, all
expended for an organization purely artistic. The Art Institute building in Grant Park cost
$700,000, and since its completion, in 1893, it has never been closed for a day. Besides its large
and excellent art school, there is a good collection of the works of old and modem masters,
which is constantly receiving additions. The Crerar Library has an endowment fund of three
and a half millions, besides a substantial building fund; and the Newberry Library and the
Armour Institute of Technology are other worthy public benefactions.
Especially notable are the educational foundations which contribute so largely to the intel-
lectual life of the city, and exert an influence throughout the Middle West, — Lake Forest Uni-
versity, Northwestern University, and the University of Chicago. The last-named institution,
THE FINAL RESULT lai
established in 1892, has ahready taken its place among the foremost imiversities in this country, '
not only by reason of its endowment and property (representing more than $23,000,000), but
also because of wise administration along a well-considered plan.
Quite in accord with the plan of Chicago is the Benjamin Franklin Ferguson Monxunent
Fimd of a million dollars, the income of which is available for defraying the cost of statuary
conunemorating worthy men and women of America, or important events in American history,
to be erected in the parks and boulevards of the city, imder the direction of the trustees of
the Art Institute. The Field Museum, representing gifts aggregating $9,000,000, is a further
instance of loyalty to the city and a desire for its improvement.
Such enterprises and such gifts as those enumerated show what may be expected from
individual benefactions as wealth increases and the idea of public service is encouraged. When
opportimities for enriching the city are provided, individual citizens rise to the occasion, and
find true satisfaction in leaving memorials useful or agreeable to the people.
Mere increase in numbers does not warrant the belief that public sentiment in favor of exten-
sive public works will grow in proportion to the population; but the history of the past does prove
that the people of Chicago are always ready and anxious to follow when the way to great benefits
is plainly open. We believe that the tendency which the conununity has shown by its acts
points hopefully to the adoption of a great scheme of public improvement. In other words,
Chicago having already carried out large projects stricdy on the lines of this report, may we not,
therefore, confidently expect this people to go on doing as they have done ?
There is a still stronger reason for the belief that the public will favor such a plan as is herein
presented. It lies in the growing love of good order, due to the advance in education. Every one
knows that the civic conditions which prevailed fifty years ago would not now be tolerated any-
where ; and every one believes that conditions of to-day will not be tolerated by the men who shall
follow us. This must be so, unless progress has ceased. The education of a commimity inevitably
brings about a higher appreciation of the value of systematic improvement, and results in a strong
desire on the part of the people to be surroimded by conditions in harmony with the growth of
good taste; and as fast as the people can be brought to see the advantage to them of more orderly
arrangement of the streets, transportation lines, and parks, it is well-nigh certain that they will
bring about such desirable ends. Thus do the dreams of to-day become the conunonplaces of to-
morrow; and what we now deem fanciful will become mere matter-of-fact to the man of the future.
If the plan as a whole be approved by the majority of our citizens because it is foimd to be
both practical and beautiful, the next question is as to what it commits us. In answering this
query a general review of the principal elements composing the plan will be of value. The
following list comprises the main items:
First. The improvement of the Lake front.
Second. The creation of a system of highways outside the city.
Third. The improvement of railway terminals, and the development of a complete traction
system for both freight and passengers.
Fourth. The acquisition of an outer park system, and of parkway circuits.
Fifth. The systematic arrangement of the streets and avenues within the city, in order to
facilitate the movement to and from the business district.
Sixth. The development of centers of intellectual life and of civic administration, so related
as to give coherence and unity to the city.
I20 PLAN OF CHICAGO
order to secure proper drainage the street levels must be raised to a considerable extent through-
out what we know as the old city, from the main river to Twelfth Street, and also for a distance
on the West and North Sides. This project, albeit a very formidable one for that time, was
promptly entered upon and didy carried out, although it involved raising all the streets and most
of the buildings throughout that large territory. For that day and generation the undertaking
was much more serious than the reconstruction of the city thoroughfares now proposed.
Again, some fifty years ago, when the idea of creating great metropolitan park areas was
new, Chicago undertook to acquire and improve a chain of parks surrounding the city on three
sides. This scheme, which has well supplied the needs of Chicago imtil recent times, was carried
out in such a manner that it never was burdensome. The creation of a park system for Chicago
was not undertaken from motives of utility, but purely because of a desire to make the city
attractive; and the success was magnificent.
Later, in the Eighties, the purification of the water of Lake Michigan by the diversion of the
sewage became a public issue. Once again the people of Chicago rose to the occasion; and
after years of hard work the Drainage Canal, built at a cost of $60,000,000, has been completed.
Next came the World's Fair, in the early Nineties, and here also a result was accomplished
which has never been surpassed either in scope or in architectural beauty. The cost of the Fair
(over $20,000,000 for grounds and buildings alone) was very large for that day. The fact that
the Fair came into being here indicated that this people, generally regarded as a commercial com-
munity, were deeply appreciative of the higher forms of good order and municipal beauty.
The Chicago World's Fair, like the raising of the grades of the city, the creation of a complete
system of parks and boulevards, and the building of the Drainage Canal, went far beyond any-
thing of the same kind ever before undertaken by a city. These four works are the greatest ones
which have been achieved by Chicago. They have proved the readiness of the people to take
up large schemes of public improvement which at the time of their inception required great
foresight and great faith in the future. Two of them were demanded by considerations ex-
clusively practical, while the other two were not so regarded, but on the other hand were the
expression of the deeper sense in man of the value of delightful surroundings. If an accurate
statement of the costs of the four improvements could be made, it would probably show that
about equal sums have been spent on the practical and on the aesthetic side.
Besides the public enterprises mentioned, the people of Chicago, either collectively or as
individuals, have established many agencies for the improvement of the intellectual, social,
moral, and aesthetic conditions. The Chicago Orchestra occupies land and buildings on
Michigan Avenue which have a present value of over a million and a quarter of dollars; and
during the past twenty years private subscriptions have amounted to at least another million, all
expended for an organization purely artistic. The Art Institute building in Grant Park cost
$700,000, and since its completion, in 1893, it has never been closed for a day. Besides its large
and excellent art school, there is a good collection of the works of old and modem masters,
which is constantly receiving additions. The Crerar Library has an endowment fund of three
and a half millions, besides a substantial building fund; and the Newberry Library and the
Armour Institute of Technology are other worthy public benefactions.
Especially notable are the educational foundations which contribute so largely to the intel-
lectual life of the city, and exert an influence throughout the Middle West, — Lake Forest Uni-
versity, Northwestern University, and the University of Chicago. The last-named institution.
THE FINAL RESULT lai
established in 1892, has ahready taken its place among the foremost imiversities in this country,
not only by reason of its endowment and property (representing more than $23,000,000), but
also because of wise administration along a well-considered plan.
Quite in accord with the plan of Chicago is the Benjamin Franklin Ferguson Monxmient
Fimd of a million dollars, the income of which is available for defraying the cost of statuary
commemorating worthy men and women of America, or important events in American history,
to be erected in the parks and boulevards of the city, imder the direction of the trustees of
the Art Institute. The Field Museum, representing gifts aggregating $9,000,000, is a further
instance of loyalty to the city and a desire for its improvement.
Such enterprises and such gifts as those enumerated show what may be expected from
individual benefactions as wealth increases and the idea of public service is encouraged. When
opportimities for enriching the city are provided, individual citizens rise to the occasion, and
find true satisfaction in leaving memorials useful or agreeable to the people.
Mere increase in numbers does not warrant the belief that public sentiment in favor of exten-
sive public works will grow in proportion to the population; but the history of the past does prove
that the people of Chicago are always ready and anxious to follow when the way to great benefits
is plainly open. We believe that the tendency which the community has shown by its acts
points hopefully to the adoption of a great scheme of public improvement. In other words,
Chicago having already carried out large projects strictly on the lines of this report, may we not,
therefore, confidently expect this people to go on doing as they have done ?
There is a still stronger reason for the belief that the public will favor such a plan as is herein
presented. It lies in the growing love of good order, due to the advance in education. Every one
knows that the civic conditions which prevailed fifty years ago would not now be tolerated any-
where ; and every one believes that conditions of to-day will not be tolerated by the men who shall
follow us. This must be so, unless progress has ceased. The education of a commimity inevitably
brings about a higher appreciation of the value of systematic improvement, and results in a strong
desire on the part of the people to be surrounded by conditions in harmony with the growth of
good taste; and as fast as the people can be brought to see the advantage to them of more orderly
arrangement of the streets, transportation lines, and parks, it is weU-nigh certain tiiat tiiey will
bring about such desirable ends. Thus do the dreams of to-day become the commonplaces of to-
morrow; and what we now deem fanciful will become mere matter-of-fact to the man of the future.
If the plan as a whole be approved by the majority of our citizens because it is found to be
both practical and beautiful, the next question is as to what it commits us. In answering this
query a general review of the principal elements composing the plan will be of value. The
following list comprises the main items:
First. The improvement of the Lake front.
Second. The creation of a system of highways outside the city.
Third. The improvement of railway terminals, and the development of a complete traction
system for both freight and passengers.
Fourth. The acquisition of an outer park system, and of parkway circuits.
Fifth. The systematic arrangement of the streets and avenues within the city, in order to
facilitate the movement to and from the business district.
Sixth. The development of centers of intellectual life and of civic administration, so related
as to give coherence and unity to the city.
122 PLAN OF CHICAGO
The improvement of the Lake front from Winnetka to the Indiana line is an economic neces-
sity. As has been stated, the aggr^ate of the waste material seeking dumping ground on the
Lake shore because that is the cheapest place to deposit it, is not less than one million cubic
yards per annum. This material is sufl5cient to produce annually from twenty-seven to thirty
acres of land if used to build the Lake parkwa)rs and park-strips herein recommended. The park
authorities would only have to furnish breakwaters and bridges and to finish the groimds. The
utilization of this material in thirty years would produce all the Lake front land reconunended
in the report for the region between Grant and Jackson parks. But long before the expiration
of the thirty years the amount of filling urgently seeking (he Lake front dump will be enormously
increased. This dirt should be utilized for the public benefit, instead of being wasted as at
present in the open Lake, where it becomes detrimental to health and an interference to naviga-
tion. The dirt to be disposed of in building new traction tunnels under the principal streets of
the city will go far toward the completion of the new Lake shore parks. It is evident, therefore,
that this improvement, involving the redemption of the entire Lake front from Winnetka to the
Indiana state line, and the creation of an extremely beautiful and useful public recreation ground,
will involve very litde public expense. There can be no doubt that this part of the plan of
Chicago will be carried through; and in fact much is already being accomplished along these lines.
The interurban highway system can be realized very cheaply. Ninety-five per cent of the
necessary roads now exist as public highways, and the cost of acquiring the other five per cent
will be merely nominal. The diagram (Plate XL) is laid out with a radius of approximately sixty
miles from the city hall. The cost of widening that comparatively small portion of the roadways
which require to be widened; the straightening of the few which need such treatment; the plant-
ing of trees along the highways; and the macadamizing of the roads are improvements that may
be hastened by concerted intelligent action. The expense involved is comparatively small, but
the economy and convenience to the public are very large. Is it not evident that this portion of
the plan can be realized at no distant day provided a strong organization of active men shall be
formed for the purpose of carrying it into eflFect?
The suggestions in regard to trunk lines, their rights-of-way, stations, and general conditions,
are many and serious. The suggestions have been made for the purpose of bringing about the
greatest economy of money and time, both in freight and passenger handling. If the recommen-
dations herein contained will produce conditions really beneficial to the individual shipper and
passenger, undoubtedly they will be foimd best for the railroads themselves. The direct object
in view is to free a large portion of the South Side from tracks and stations and restore it to busi-
ness use ; to double the capacity of the streets of the whole city by opening circulation to the
north, west, and south, and by connecting the oud)dng parts in the best possible manner with the
heart of the city. Over and above all these considerations, highly important as they aU are,
is economy in the freight handling of Chicago as a shipping center. The object here has been to
find that general principle which, if applied, will give to the merchants, manufacturers, and jobbers
of this city all the advantages that shoidd naturally be theirs throughout the great territory dom-
inated by Chicago. If the general scheme herein proposed shall not be adopted by the public and
the railroads, some other inevitably must be, because the very life of the commimity is involved in
the solution of this problem. The commercial prosperity of the commimity is represented by the
cost per ton of handling freight into and out of this territory as a shipping center. General changes
in railroad conditions take years to accomplish. That will be the case if such a scheme as we
^HKsu^M^MBi^i^B^Bih^^BBMlBAi
M'
THE FINAL RESULT 123
recommend is carried out; but the public should remember that they will not be taxed to pay
for it. When these improvements come they will be railroad enterprises, undertaken by the
railroads and carried out by the railroads.
The traction recommendations contained in this report are already in progress, and no ques-
tion need be raised as to whether or not this portion of work will be carried out. It has practically
been decided upon, and no doubt will be accomplished. The cost will be borne in part by the
traction lines themselves, and partly by the public.
The additional parks and parkways recommended are extensive, as should be the case.
Although it is true that the men of forty years ago did devise a scheme which has been sufficient
almost up to the present moment, it is also true that the number, location, and arrangement of
the parks and parkways of Chicago to-day are entirely inadequate for its future development;
and nothing is suggested in this report except what has seemed to be absolutely required. Fifty
years ago, before population had become dense in certain portions of the city, people could live
without parks; but we of to-day cannot. We now r^ard the promotion of robust health of body
and mind as necessary public duties, in order that the individual may be benefited, and that the com-
munity at large may possess a higher average degree of good citizenship. And after all has been said,
good citizenship is the prime object of good city planning. In some locations parks and park-
ways are sufficient to accommodate the people in the immediate neighborhoods ; other sections of
this city, and suburbs which will soon become parts of this city, should be equally well provided.
** Nature,'' says President Charles W. Eliot, "is the greatest factor in the continuous education of
man and woman." The extensive woodlands proposed are an addition not usually designed for
American cities, although almost invariably used in Europe. The cost of these added parks and
woodlands will be considerable, and it must be borne by the public; but it is a sane proposition
that the people of Chicago and its suburbs should have the sixty thousand acres of wooded ter-
ritory as well as the great Bow, (Plate CIII) which will occupy from six to eight hundred addi-
tional acres. The acquisition and completion of an outer park s}rstem may easily be carried
through in ten years; and if the cost shall be distributed over that period of time, it will not prove
burdensome. The returns will come in the shape of increase of health and joy of living for all
the people; and incidentally the value of every real estate holding in the city will be enhanced.
The land necessary for the civic center should be seciured at once, while values at the point
proposed are reasonable. For the time being this land may be treated as park space; but the
sites and the general scheme of grouping for the buildings should be approved, so that as the city,
the county, and the general government outgrow their present structures, the new ones may take
their appointed places, each one contributing its part to an orderly and convenient scheme.
The adoption of such a scheme would save a very large amount of money in the purchase of
public building sites; and would create stability in real estate values. To the West Side espe-
cially the development of a civic center along the lines indicated is a matter of prime importance ;
for it will give to that portion of the city the needed impetus towards higher standards than now
prevail there. At the same time it will benefit all other parts of the city, since it is for the advan-
tage of Chicago as a whole that each portion shall be developed equally with every other portion.
The cost of the civic center should be paid by the whole commimity.
The street plan as laid out involves a very considerable amount of money; but it will be
found that in Chicago as in other cities, the opening of new thoroughfares, although involving
large initial expense, creates an increase in values, due to increase in convenience and the provis-
134 PLAN OF CHICAGO
iOD iai adequate sites for the increasii^ retail traffic of the city. The cost will amount to many
millions of dollars, but the result will be continuous prosperity for all who dwell here; and such
pro^>erity the city cannot have unless it becomes a convenient and pleasant place in which to live.
Finally, it seems probable that the schemes of outer highways and of all the Lake front
improvements may come about quite naturally and with very little expense to the city; that the
railways will pay most of the expense of their changes and improvements, thus leaving a portion of
the cost of the traction system and all of the cost of the civic center, of the parks and parkwa)rs,
and of the street development for the general public to meet. The community has ample finan-
cial ability to do its part without placing undue burdens upon the people. Paris had not
much more than half a million people, and her commercial prospects were far less than are ours
to-day, when that municipality adopted a street improvement scheme involving over two hundred
and sixty million dollars, and carried it to completion in thirty-five years. The motive of the
French people in undertaking this enterprise was to create a great attraction for all men: a city
so delightful as to insure continuous prosperity to the inhabitants. The success of the imdertak-
mg has amply justified the pains and the expense. People from all over the world visit and
linger in Paris. No matter where they make their money, they go there to ^nd it; and
every proprietor and workman in Paris benefits by reason of that fact. Conditions in Chicago
are such as to repel outsiders and drive away those who are free to go. The cream of our own
earnings should be spent here, while the city should become a magnet, drawing to us those who
wish to enjoy life. The change would mean prosperity, effective, certain, and forever continuous.
If, therefore, the plan is a good one, its adoption and realization will produce for us conditions
in which business enterprises can be carried on with the utmost economy, and with the certainty
of successful issue, while we and our children can enjoy and improve life as we cannot now do.
Then our own people will become home-keepers, and the stranger will se^ our gates.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO
The following opinion, prepared by Walter L. Fisher, as counsel for the Plan Com-
mittee of the Commercial Club, has been submitted to Edward J. Brundage, Corpoxation
Covmsel for the City of Chicago, Harry A. Lewis, Coimty Attorney of Cook County,
Benjamin F. Richolson, Attorney for the West Chicago Park Commissioners, Charljbs A.
Churan, Attorney for the Conmiissioners of Lincoln Park, Robert Redfield, Attorney for
the South Park Commissioners, to Edgar B. Tolhan, Frank L. Shepard, Harry S.
Mecartney, Frank Hamun, and R. P. Hollett, who have been counsel for these official
bodies, respectively, and to Milton J. Foreman, Member of the City CovmcQ of Chicago,
and George A. Mason, Special Assessment Attorney for the City, all of whom concur in
the conclusions and recommendations stated. William W. Case assisted in the preparation
of the opinion.
mm
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO
By WALTER L. FISHER, of the Chicago Bar
INTRODUCTORY
The purpose of an inquiry into the legal aspects of the Plan of Chicago is to ascertain to what
extent and in what manner the Plan can be carried out under the existing laws, to suggest such
additional legislation as may be necessary or desirable, and to consider how far such legislation
is controlled or prevented by existing constitutional provisions. It is gratifying to be able to state
at the outset that the main structure of the Plan of Chicago is framed with due regard to the limi-
tations imposed by law upon public enterprises, although important details cannot be carried into
effect without some aid from the legislature.
In considering the legal aspects of city planning in the United States, the first inquiry natu-
rally relates to the limitations contained in the state and federal constitutions. Governmental
powers in the United States, unlike those of many European coimtries, are defined by written
constitutions, which would imdoubtedly prevent the imitation here of some of the sweeping under-
takings and arbitrary though effective methods of European city planning. European govern-
ments have carried to a successful issue many wide-reaching reforms which could be undertaken
in this country only with important modifications. It is these modifications with which we are
chiefly concerned. A Prussian statute enacted in 1902 empowered the police authorities to pro-
hibit advertising which was calculated to disfigure the landscape ; ^ and a provision of the Prussian
Code declares that no building shall be so erected as to disfigure cities and public places.' Regu-
lations intended to maintain the suburban character of certain localities have been upheld in
Prussia, in the absence of statute, as sanitary measures within the jurisdiction of the police authori-
ties, and in other German cities they are authorized by law.* The State of Illinois, in attempting
to follow such examples, would be obliged to reckon not only with that provision, of her own con-
stitution which forbids the taking of private property for public use without just compensation,
but also with that other provision, found both in her own constitution and in that of the United
States, which declares that no person shall be deprived of property without due process of law.
In England, as long ago as 1862, the Metropolitan Local Management Act authorized the Board
of Public Works to fix building lines to which all new buildings must conform, and to prohibit
the erection of any house beyond the general line of buildings in any street in which the same is
situated.^ Compensation is allowed to any owner of property who can show himself to be
injured by such restrictions upon the use of his land, but the parliamentary fiat determines
forever that he must submit to the regulations thus imposed upon him. In this country the owner,
^ Freund on Police Power, sec. 183, note 5.
' Freund on Police Power, sec. 181, note 5a
' Freund on Police Power, sec. 181, note 5a
* Sututes at Large, vol. 103, p. 730; see abo subsequent Acts shown in Chitty's Statutes, vol. 8, " Metropolis ** p. as3t ^^^
vol. 10, " Public Health " p. 53.
127
128 PLAN OF CHICAGO
even if compensation were provided, could demand the judgment of a court whether the use for
which his property was taken was a "public use," within the judicial definition of that phrase as
found in our constitutions. In Illinois he could insist upon his further constitutional privilege of
having his compensation fixed by a jiuy before the restriction became operative. The public
authorities of Paris, when condenming land for mimicipal purposes, were authorized to and did
take more extensive areas than were actually needed, seeking by this means to recoup the cost
of the improvements by selling the adjacent premises at the enhanced values produced by these
improvements. Indeed, the contractors for these public works were themselves authorized, in
some cases, to acquire considerable areas outside the lines of the actual improvement, so that the
prospective profits thus to be realized might be deducted from the cost of the improvement to the
public* Governments in this country are forbidden by constitutional principles thus to take
private property against the will of the owner merely for pecuniary profit. Many cities in Great
Britain and on the continent have removed the entire population of insanitary districts and have
constructed new dwellings, at public expense, in the renovated area. Such features figure largely
in the town-planning schemes of Europe, but have been considered inexpedient or unnecessary
here. The town-planning bill introduced in Parliament last year by John Bums not only confers
power upon municipal authorities to impose a town-planning scheme on any land within or near
their boundaries, but enables the authorities to take judgment against the owners of neighboring
property for the amount by which its value is enhanced through the operation of the plan. Such
methods of procedure, however justifiable from an economic point of view, would be contrary to
established public policy in this country. The constitution of Illinois requires imiformity of taxa-
tion with respect to both persons and property, and while it permits the cost of local improvements
to be assessed by the authorities of cities, towns and villages upon property specially benefited
thereby, it not only limits the aggregate amount of such special assessments to the cost of the
improvement, but requires the distribution of that aggregate over all property similarly benefited.
While, therefore, in every civilized country the makers of laws strive to protect private property
and private rights from spoliation and abuse, it remains true that extensive municipal and govern-
mental works are more quickly and easily executed in those parts of the world where the legisla-
tive authorities have a free hand than they can be under a system of rigid constitutional restraints.
Those vast projects which have created the modem city of Paris and are transforming London
and many continental cities would necessarily follow different channels in this country; yet there
is every reason to believe that the constitutional limitations which here determine the form of public
improvements do not really prohibit any measures that in this coimtry would be considered wise.
It will be found that the restraints of the fundamental law under which we live do not forbid any
of the steps recommended in the proposed Plan of Chicago, although in many important respects
they do fix and control the manner in which, and the means by which, these steps can be taken.
The state, and its agent, the municipal corporation, are fully empowered to protect and to promote
the public welfare, and for that purpose have been vested with the three great functions of govem-
ment known as the police power, the power of eminent domain, and the power of taxation, in one
or another of which will be found adequate authority for the accomplishment of the Plan.
The police power has been characterized by the Supreme Court of Illinois as "that inherent
plenary power in the state which permits it to prohibit all things hurtful to the comfort, welfare
* House Document No. 388, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Dec. 29, 1903, pp. 63 and 63, and citations there made from
VEconomisU Frangais.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 129
and safety of society." * Avoiding too rigid an exactness of definition, the courts have described
it in terms which are said to be summed up in the statement that "the police power, in its broadest
acceptation, means the general power of a government to preserve and promote the public welfare
by prohibiting all things hurtful to the comfort, safety and welfare of society, and establishing such
rules and regulations for the conduct of all persons, and the use and management of all property,
as may be conducive to the public interest." ' It is only under the police power that men can be
required to submit to the destruction or appropriation of their property without monetary recom-
pense for the loss.*
In the exercise of the power of eminent domain, the state may take private property, but only
for a "public use" and only upon payment of just compensation. No man can, in this country, be
required to surrender his property, even for full value, unless the use for which it is taken is public.
The right assimied by some European governments to condenm large areas of land in order, by
selling part of it, to defray the cost of improving the rest, would be subject in this country to the
inquuy whether such a purpose is "public," within the meaning of that term as expounded by the
courts. No judge groimded in the principles of American jurisprudence would countenance the
argument that mere pecimiary advantage to a municipality could, without other pretext, justify
the taking of private property against the will of the owner. It is quite another question, how-
ever, whether the condensation of more land than is directly involved may not be justified as an
incident of a public improvement, when it could not be defended as an independent speculation.
The last of the three governmental powers mentioned is the power of taxation. Like the
power of eminent domain, it is inherent in every sovereign state, but no taxes can be levied for
' other than public purposes. They may be general, representing the tribute due from every person
to the government which protects him; or special, measured or limited by the particular benefit
accruing to his property from a local improvement. The cost of public works may be paid for
outright from the proceeds of a single levy or assessment, or may be defrayed from the proceeds of
bonds to be liquidated by annual contributions distributed over a term of years. The constitu-
tion of Illinois requires provision to be made for paying all municipal bonds within twenty years,
and limits the amount of indebtedness which any municipal body may incur to five per cent of
' the assessed value of taxable property therein; but does not impose any general limitation upon
the amount or rate of taxes which municipal bodies may be authorized to levy.
Such is a brief characterization of the three functions of government upon which chiefly de-
pends the execution of public enterprises in this country. The Plan of Chicago, now under consid-
eration, embraces as its leading features the acquisition, maintenance, and control of parks, boule-
vards and arteries of communication throughout the metropolitan territory tributary to Chicago;
the establishment and control of similar parks, circuits and avenues within the city itself, and
incidentally the reclamation of slums and congested areas; the embellishment of the shore of Lake
* CUy of BeUeville v. Turnpike Co., 334 111. 438, 437; CUy of Chicago v. Gunning System, 314 111. 638, 635.
' 33 Amer. & Eng. Encyc. of Law, 916.
' In the case of Chicago, BurUngkm 6* Quincy Railway Co, v. People, 313 111. 103, 116, the Supreme Court quotes with approval
the following language from the American and English Encyclopeedia of Law:
"The police power is to be clearly distinguished from the right of eminent domain; and the distinction lies in this: that in the
exercise of the latter right, private property is taken for public use and the owner is invariably entitled to compensation therefor, while
the police power is usually exerted merely to regelate the use and enjoyment of property by the owner, or, if he is deprived of his profH
erty outright, it is not taken for public use, but rather destroyed in order to promote the general welfare of the public, and in neither
case is the owner entitled to any compensation for any injury which he may sustain in consequence thereof, for the law considers that
either the injury is damnum absque injuria or the owner is sufficiently compensated by sharing in the general benefits resulting from
the exercise of the police power."
This decisbn was affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States, 3oo U. S. 561.
I30 PLAN OF CHICAGO
Michigan; the consolidation and rearrangement of freight and passenger terminals; and the
creation of a Civic Center connected with other parts of the city by convenient avenues, ajid in or
about which shall be grouped important public buildings which may hereafter be erected.
OUTER PARKS, BOULEVARDS, AND CIRCUITS
The outer belt of parks and forest preserves, the boulevards and highways connecting country
towns with each other and with the city, and the extension of a driveway around the shore of Lake
Michigan, involve relations with counties outside of Cook, and even with states beyond the borders
of Illinois. It may safely be assumed, without specific inquiry, that the laws of Wisconsin and
Indiana, if not already adequate to the performance of their ^lare in the project, can easily be
made so by the people of those states.
In Dlmois the existing laws are in the main suflScient for the needs of local communities which
desire, by the exercise of their present taxing powers or the oi^anization of park districts, to bear
their part in a general scheme of improvement. The Act of June 19, 1893,' provides for the incor-
poration of park districts to connect two or more cities or villages by means of boulevards or parks.
A more comprehensive measure is the Act of June 24, 1895,* under which several park districts
in Cook County, such as those at Wnnetka, Kenilworth, Wilmette and Rogers Park, have been
organized by vote of the people of those conmiunities. A district formed under this act may
acquire land for parks or boulevards by purchase or condemnation, and the board of park com-
missioners may accept from any municipality in the district the control of any park or boulevard
therein. Bonds may be issued up to three per cent of the assessed valuation of property in the
district, and, in addition to taxes for the payment thereof, a general tax of four mills on the dollar
niay be collected. Special assessments for local improvements may be levied through the town-
ship authorities. Districts bordering upon navigable bodies of water are empowered to reclaim
submerged lands, and the title of the state is granted for that purpose to the park district to which
such submerged land is adjacent. The park authorities could construct irfands or driveways
beyond the present water line. They would be requu^ to recompense the owners of the shore for
any loss or diminution of their riparian rights; but the benefits to the shore lands would doubtless
in many, if not most, instances more than offset the cost of the property and property rights that
would be taken or damaged for the improvement.
Among local agencies which might co-operate in suburban devdopment may be mentioned
the townships. These have long exercised jurisdiction over country roads, and they were author-
ized by two Acts of March 2, 1907,* to secure small parks by purchase or condemnation and upon
vote of the people to issue bonds and levy taxes for that purpose. No park so established can be
more than ten acres in extent.
Such limited local authorities may prove serviceable auxiliaries to the main plan, but their
powers are inadequate to the execution of the more general features of metropolitan development;
nor would it be just to impose on local tax-payers the entire burden of such improvements as the
acquisition of extensive areas of park or woodland chiefly for the resort and recreation of the people
> Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 190S, p. iS3>.
' Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1546.
' Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition erf 1908, p. 1574-5.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 131
of the city. These enterprises require the co-operation of a central body of more extensive powers
and larger resources.
In looking for instrumentalities through which such plans might be executed, the park legis-
lation of Massachusetts claims first attention. The Metropolitan Park Commission, under whose
auspices the city and suburban park system of Boston has been developed, was created by an act
of the l^islature of Massachusetts, approved June 3, 1893.* It consists of five members, appointed
by the governor, and exercises jurisdiction over Boston and various other cities and towns which
constitute the Metropolitan Parks District. The board has power to acquire and maintain open
spaces, taking in fee or otherwise any land necessary for that purpose, and acting so far as may
be in consultation with local boards. Any open space in a city or town may be turned over to the
board by the local authorities. Subsequent acts empower the commission to construct roadways
and boulevards, to purchase or condemn land for that purpose, and to assess property specially
benefited thereby. The commissioners are authorized to abandon land which they have acquired,
thereby revesting title in the original owner and reducing the damages which he might otherwise
justly daim. Authority is also given to sell, at public or private sale, any lands or rights acquired
and paid for. Property taken by the commission vests in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts,
and is to be paid for by state bonds extending over a term of not more than forty years. Taxes
to meet the bonds are, however, apportioned among the cities and towns within the district, and
a reapportionment is to be made once in five years. By an Act of March 1 7, 1903, the commission
and the park ofl&cers in any city or town were empowered to make reasonable rules and r^ulations
respecting the display of signs or advertisements visible from public parks and parkways; but the
Supreme Court, in the case of CommanweaUh v. Boston Advertising Co.^ 188 Mass. 348, held that
this statute did not and could not confer upon the public authorities any power to prohibit the
owners of land from leasing it for advertising purposes, unless just compensation were provided.
The Metropolitan Park Commission is a creature of the state — not of the particular communi-
ties directly aflfected — and over its fortunes the legislature has maintained a constant fostering
care, extending and defining its jurisdiction by successive acts, and granting fresh financial powers
as occasion arose. Local home rule is a political principle not so firmly established there as in Illi-
nois. Here it would not be feasible to create a similar body by legislative fiat without the concur-
ring vote of the people of the district over which its jurisdiction extended. Legislation designed for
similar ends is more likely, in this state, to take the general form of enlargement of the powers and
functions of the city and the county; or, especially if more than one county is involved, of the
creation of a special commission endowed with extraordinary powers and similar in many of its
features to the forest-preserve districts contemplated by the Act approved May 18, 1905.'
This measure, which is entitled " An Act to provide for the creation of forest-preserve districts,"
authorizes the incorporation as a forest-preserve district of any area of contiguous territory con-
taining one or more cities, towns, or villages within the same or adjoining counties. Such a dis-
trict can only be organized by the affirmative vote of the inhabitants; and if it embraces parts of
two counties, there must be a favorable vote in each. The affairs of the district are to be managed
by a president and six commissioners, appointed by the governor and drawn from different political
parties. The president alone receives a salary. The board is authorized to accept control of
streets in any city, town, or village on request of the local authorities, and to designate existing
streets and roads as pleasure driveways, and lay out and establish others for that purpose; but
^ Acts of 1893, chap. 407. ' Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 11 99.
132 PLAN OF CHICAGO
none of these is to be within any public park district. Power is given to acquire, by gift, purchase,
or condemnation, any land not already in a park district for driveways and forest preserves. Bonds
may be issued to the amount of one pet cent of the assessed value of all property in the district,
and this amount may be increased by a vote of the people to three per cent. Authority is given
to levy taxes for the payment of bonds and interest thereon, and also to levy for general purposes
an additional tax not exceeding one mill on the dollar.
An attempt was made under this act to organize as a forest-preserve district all of Cook
County, except a few towns in the extreme north and south ends thereof. It received a majority
of the votes cast on the proposition, but not a majority of those cast at the r^ular election held
on the same day. This has left some doubt as to the l^al eflFect of the vote. The result was
largely due to indifference and to the creation of a new taxing body with what were r^arded by
many as unnecessarily extensive powers. A committee of the l^islature was appointed to report
a revised act more consonant with the wishes of the people. Among the changes which have
been suggested are that each district shall be confined to a single county; that the members of
the commission shall be appointed by the president of the county board ; and that taxes for the
purposes contemplated by the act shall not be levied by the district authorities themselves but
by the board of county commissioners. The proposed forest-preserve districts are essentially
park districts, though called by a different name; and the main objects of this act might be
accomplished by creating a forest-preserve commission as a department of the county govern-
ment, under appropriate legislation — a method certainly less open to attack from a legal point
of view than the one embodied in the Forest-Preserve Act of 1905.*
Counties in Illinois have under existing law no general powers which would enable them
to take a prominent part in plans for the development of the metropolitan district of Chicago;
but it would be competent for the legislature to invest them with more extensive functions. There
is in the constitution no limit upon the amount of county taxes which may be voted by the people;
and county bonds, when authorized by popular vote, may be issued for any authorized county
purpose up to the constitutional limit of five per cent of the assessed value of taxable property
in the county.
In an inventory of the agencies which might be capable of sharing in the creation of outer
parks and boulevards, mention should not be omitted of a Greater City of Chicago, which might
be invested by the l^slature with power to purchase or condemn land far beyond its own cor-
porate limits in order to establish a system of parks and boulevards commensurate with the needs
of its inhabitants.' Some doubt has been suggested as to the constitutionality of such a grant of
power if attempted under the so-called Chicago charter amendment to the state constitution,'
which authorizes "a special charter of local municipal government for the territory now or here-
after embraced within the limits of the city of Chicago." The effective policing by the city of
parks and boulevards outside the city limits would present practical difficulties, and the plan would
impose upon the city the entire cost of improvements in the advantages of which the suburban
districts in which these improvements were located would share. If all of the people and
property benefited are to bear their proportionate share of the expense, the proposed S)rstem of
' See Russell v. High School Board, aia 111., 337.
' House bill No. ^50, introduced in the Illinob legislature, March 33, 1909, provides (Art. rV, Sec. 9) that " the city shall have
power to acquire, by dedication, gift, purchase, or condemnation, lands or easements inside or outside of the dty limits, for park pur-
poses, and for ways connecting parks with the city or with each other."
' Constitution of Illinois, Art. IV, Sec. 34.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 133
' outer paxks and boulevards should be acquired and controlled by the county or by a new
municipal body.
CITY PARKS, SQUARES, BOULEVARDS, AND AVENUES
The existing municipal corporations that might be authorized to bear a part in realizing
the Plan within the city limits are the city of Chicago, the county of Cook, and the several park
boards. Any participation by the Sanitary District, as by bridging its canals or improving the
appearance of their banks, would be incidental.
City councils are empowered by Article V of the City and Village Act of 1872 to lay out, estab-
lish, open, widen, pave, and otherwise improve streets, alleys, avenues, parks, and public grounds,
and to plant trees upon and r^ulate the use of the same.* In the case of Thompson v. Highland
Parky 187 HI. 265, the court sustained the power of the city to include parkwa)rs and grass plots
in the improvement of a street to be paid for by special assessment. The special Act of May 18,
1905,' relating to the city of Chicago only, confers upon the council power to acquire, by purchase
or otherwise, municipal parks and playgrounds, and declares that the city may exercise the right
of eminent domain for the acquirement of property useful, advantageous, or desirable for muni-
cipal purposes; and that the procedure in such cases shall be, as nearly as may be, like that
provided for in the Act of June 14, 1897, concerning local improvements as amended or to be
amended. Land taken for a park is '* property useful, advantageous, or desirable for municipal
purposes," and a public park is a "local improvement," the cost of which may be assessed upon
contiguous property to the extent of the special benefits when the legislature authorizes that course
to be pursued.* The "Act concerning local improvements" * directs the city council to provide,
in any ordinance for a local improvement, whether it shall be made by special assessment or
special taxation, or by general taxation, or otherwise; and, in sections 13 to 33, inclusive, defines
the procedure for ascertaining the compensation to be paid for private property taken or dam-
aged, and for assessing the cost on other property to the extent to which it is specially benefited.
The city, therefore, already possesses power to acquire public parks within the city limits and
to assess the cost, or the greater part thereof, against property in the neighborhood of the im-
provement. Under the present law all ordinances for local improvements in the city, to be paid
for wholly or in part by special assessment or special taxation, must originate with the board of
local improvements; but if the park boards were merged in the city government, it might be
feasible to grant to an administrative department of parks the initiative with respect to local
improvements within their special jurisdiction.' The city authorities have now ample power, to
tbe extent of their financial resources, to improve and widen existing streets and to open new
streets, parks and public grounds. The city council has adequate discretion to determine how
wide any street shall be, and whether it shall be devoted entirely to travel or given up partly to
lawns, trees, and parkways.
^ Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 316.
' Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 336.
* Shoemaker v. UniUd StaUs, 147 U. S. 38a; Dunham v. People, 96 111. 331; People v. BrisUn, 80 111. 433.
* Hurd*s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 431.
' House bill No. 350, Illinois, 1909, already mentioned, which contemplates the merger of the park boards in the city govern-
ment, provides (Art. IV, Sec. 19) as follows: ''The provision of the statutes governing the making of local improvements in the city
shall be as nearly as possible applied to the proceedings for the taking of lands and the meeting of the expenses in connection with
such improvements, except that the board (d park commissioners shall act in place of the board of kx:al improvements."
134 PLAN OF CHICAGO
It is highly important that the city should be able eflfectivdy to control the traffic on streets
and boulevards, and especially to keep designated residence streets free from heavy teaming or
particular kinds of traffic (such as through teaming, not going to or from property fronting on the
particular street), without formally turning such streets over to park authorities as boulevards.
This power may be given by the 96th paragraph of Section i of Article V of the statute in relation
to cities, villages, and towns,* which authorizes the city council to "direct, license, and control all
wagons and other vehicles conveying loads within the city, or any particular dass of such wagons
or other vehides/' If more specific authority is required, it should be obtained from the
l^islature. The streets are held by the city in trust for the general public and cannot be
diverted from that purpose by the city without special authority.' The legislature, however,
as representative of the public, has control over them, and may limit the public right to
make free use of streets; as it actually has done in the statute authorizing the wheel tax.* It
may authorize municipal authorities to designate certain streets as pleasure drivewa)rs, to the
exdusion of heavy traffic,* or to turn over any of its streets to park boards for boulevard and drive-
way purposes;' but the city cannot, without l^slative authority, divest itself of the control of a
street nor restrict the public in the reasonable use and enjoyment thereof.* General authority
has been conferred upon city councils to r^ulate the use of streets, but this provision of the statute
cannot safely be relied upon as an unqualified del^ation of power to set aside some streets
for exclusive use as pleasure driveways, since the Act of March 27, 1889,^ expressly empowers
the municipal authorities of a city or village to sdect for that purpose not more than two streets
within the corporate limits. This doubt the l^slature should be asked to set at rest.
The narrow scope of the powers of Cook County has already been commented upon. While
counties could not, under the present constitution, be authorized to pay for improvements by
special assessment, the general assembly might empower the county board to purchase or con-
demn land within or without the city limits for parks or other public uses, the cost to be paid from
the proceeds of any bond issues which the people might see fit to vote within the five per cent
limit of indebtedness. A park commission or forest-preserve commission, established as an
administrative department of the county government, would be an appropriate agency for carry-
ing out these objects.
The only park authorities now exercising any considerable jurisdiction within the dty limits
are the South Park Commissioners, the West Chicago Park Commissioners and the
Commissioners of Lincoln Park, all of which were incorporated by the l^islature in the year
1869 for the purpose of acquiring certain specific parks and boulevards. They have received
additional powers from time to time. The West Chicago Park Commissioners, within whose
jurisdiction the proposed Civic Center would lie, were authorized by the Act of 1869 t^ purchase
or condenm the land described therein, and to levy special assessments for that purpose. The
Act of April 9, 1879,* as amended, gives every board of park commissioners power to connect
its parks or boulevards with any part of a city, town, or village by taking any appropriate street
^ Hunt's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 331.
' Kreigh v. Chicago, 86 111. 407.
• Border's Storage Co. v. Chicago, 235 111. 58.
• Cicero Lumber Co, v. Cicero, 176 111. 9; Brodbine v. Revere, 183 Mass. 598.
• People V. Walsh, 96 III. 333.
^ Ligare v. City 0} Chicago, 139 111. 46; Smith v. McDowell, 148 111. 51.
^ Hurd*s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 408.
"Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 15 18.
/
'^^JBrmTiwaSftoi^i-JiK-JOii^^K*^^
tSi**'V>*^'^'
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 135
5 with the consent of the corporate authorities and of the owners of a majority of the frontage. In
1885 park boards were authorized to accept from municipal authorities any parks under their
^i control.* The Act of May 10, 1901,* empowers every park board to acquire, by purchase or
i condensation, as many small parks, not exceeding ten acres each, as it desires and can pay for.
t By the Act of March 4, 1907,' even more extensive powers are conferred upon the commis-
sioners of every public park district appointed or selected pursuant to any act which has been
or may be submitted to the legal voters of such park district and by them adopted. Full power
is given to purchase or condemn any land for the establishment of new parks or the extension of
old parks, and, by vote of the people, to issue bonds to any desired amount within the constitu-
tional limit. This act materially increases the powers of the boards to which it applies. The
West Park board is within its terms; and may, upon favorable vote of the people of the district,
bond itself up to the constitutional limit; and it can probably also levy special assessments under
authority of the Act of June 24, 1895,* to pay for property condemned for park purposes.
Land for the proposed Civic Center might be acquired through any one of several agencies.
The city of Chicago, if financially able, could purchase the necessary area, or condenm it and
assess back part of the expense on real estate in the vicinity. Any portion of the cost not raised
by special assessment would have to be defrayed from the proceais of bonds, which, under the
constitution, must be redeemable within twenty years, and must not increase the indebtedness
of the city beyond five per cent of the assessed value of property therein. Additional borrowing
powers may be conferred upon the city through consolidation of various local authorities with
the city under the so-called charter amendment to the state constitution, or through a change in
the statutory method of fixing the assessed valuation of property. Appropriate l^islation should
be enacted at once in order to make land thus acquired available not only for city buildings or
park purposes, but for the location of the buildings of other public bodies, upon financial and
other terms to be fixed by negotiation with the city.'
The county of Cook, though now lacking the necessary powers, might be authorized by
the legislature to acquire, with the proceeds of a bond issue, the requisite area for the Civic Center,
" and to make appropriate arrangements for the location therein of federal and city buildings and
other public edifices.
The West Park board might well be asked to treat the Civic Center as a legitimate object
for the exercise of its functions, and with that end in view it should be invested by the legislature
with powers adequate to the inmiediate acquisition of the land embraced in the proposed Civic
Center, and should be authorized to arrange appropriate terms for the future occupation of part
of the area by the buildings of other governmental and public bodies; among which terms might
be the reimbursement of part of the original cost.
* Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 15 21.
' Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1890, p. 1560.
' Hurd*s Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1569.
* Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 1544.
* House Bill No. 350, Illinois, 1909, already mentioned, contains the following provbion: "Art. IV, Sec. 14. The city shall
have authority to acquire and hold lancfs for the erection and maintenance thereon of public buildings of the city and for public
grounds surrounding such buildings or connected therewith, and ^all have the riffht to permit buildings of the County of Cook, the
State of Illinois, the United States of America or other governmental or public bodies to be erected and maintained on such lands and
grounds upon such terms and conditions as the city council may prescribe. Subject to such use, the board (tf park commissioners shall,
when directed by the city council, have the same power to manage and control, improve, maintain, and beautify such lands and grounds,
as is in thb Act conferred upon said board with respect to parks; and for any of the purposes hereinbefore in this section specified,
the city may acquire or dispose of the title to or rights in lands or rights or easements in or over lands abutting on or in the vicinity
of such lands or public grounds in like manner and to like extent as in this Act provided with respect to parks.''
136 PLAN OF CHICAGO
Among the agencies which might be created to carry out this and other features of the Han
should, perhaps, be mentioned a municipal corporation organized along the lines indicated by
the forest-preserve legislation already alluded to. The Act of 1905 * permitted cities and viUages
to be included in a forest-preserve district, and the city of Chicago was included within the bound-
aries of the proposed district the creation of which was submitted to popular vote. Section 6 of
that act, providing for the designation of streets as pleasure driveways, specified that none of
them should fall within any park district, and that no preserves should be within the limits of a
park district. The l^islature may have power to eliminate such restrictions, and to sanction
the incorporation of a metropolitan board capable of exercising all the powers of a park commis-
sion within and without the city limits.
With reference to the proposed boulevard link on Michigan Avenue, connecting the north
and south sides, it is to be borne in mind that the city under its general powers can enlarge Mich-
igan Avenue to any desired width and can alter the grade of the whole or any portion of the street.
There were, however, passed by the l^islature May 25, 1907, four acts which were designed to
facilitate the construction of this boulevard link. It was in contemplation at that time that the
South Park and Lincoln Park boards would do part of the work and defray part of the expense,
and that the city would meet the balance of the cost by annual appropriations extending over a
series of years.
The first of these four acts ' was designed to enable the South Park board to contribute
such part of the expense as to it might seem best. This bill provides that the corporate author-
ities of any public park district having control of any park in a city wherein other park districts
and parks are situated, but not connected therewith by any boulevard or driveway or other park
thoroughfare, may from time to time in their discretion issue and sell additional bonds, not ex-
ceeding the five per cent limitation, in order to defray the expense of connecting any park under
their control with any other public park or parks by means of a boulevard and driveway in the
city, and altering and improving any connection or connections between such parks. Such bonds
must, however, be authorized by the voters of the park district at an election.
By the second act,' the Lincoln Park board is authorized to issue, upon a favorable vote
of the electors of the district, bonds not exceeding $1,000,000 for the purpose of constructing
surface and elevated boulevards and the approaches thereto over or along streets and alleys, when
authorized to do so by any city having control thereof.
The other two acts referred to were passed in order to dispel any doubt about the power
of municipalities to erect an elevated structure in a public street. One* empowers any dty to
grant, by ordinance, to any board having jurisdiction over parks and boulevards the right to take
and improve, by means of surface or elevated ways, a street not more than one mile in length,
with all convenient or necessary approaches, inclines, and superstructures; while the other'
confers power upon any city to construct and maintain an elevated way in any street, with all
necessary approaches, inclines, and superstructures, and to authorize any commission or board
having jurisdiction of a public park to take over, maintain, and control, upon terms fixed by or-
dinance, any street and any incline, approach, or superstructure therein.
^ Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. nag.
' Hurd*s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1570.
' Hurd's Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1572.
* Hurd*s Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1577.
* Hurd's Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1578.
U;n'JC;ilKW»»^^^'*'*'* ^'"
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 137
An alternative method of constructing a surface or elevated boulevard link would be found
in a proceeding by the city under the Local Improvement Act. The dty has ample power to con-
demn property for widening the street and to assess the land damages against all property spec-
ially ben^ted thereby. Having thus added contiguous property to the street as a part thereof,
the city could, under the enabling act already alluded to, if not under its general powers, con-
struct the proposed improvement. It must be borne in mind, however, that even if the method
of special assessment were resorted to in order to defray the cost, a substantial percentage of that
cost would, no doubt, be designated by the court to be paid by the city as public benefits.
LAKE SHORE DEVELOPMENT
The treatment of the shore of Lake Michigan within the city limits involves comparatively
little difl&culty from a legal point of view. Ample legislation has been provided under which the
Lincoln Park and South Park boards, can extend their driveways and parks over the bed of Lake
Michigan, subject to the consent of the Secretary of War. An Act of May 14, 1903,* expressly
confers upon every board of park commissioners having control of any park, boulevard, or drive-
way bordering upon any public waters in the state the power to extend the same over the bed of
such waters, and to connect two parks under their control by a boulevard or driveway over the
bed of the water. Private riparian rights or titles may for such purpose be acquired by contract
with or deeds from the owners, and may be paid for out of the general revenues of the park board.
By Section 4, the title of the state to the submerged lands between the shore and the boulevard or
parkway — in other words, the bed of the intervening lagoon — is granted to the board of park
conunissioners. Several other statutes on this subject were enacted on the same date. One
authorizes the South Park Commissioners to extend any park imder their control out into the
lake over the adjacent submerged lands;' another conveys to the South Park Commissioners
Grant Park from Randolph Street to Park Row, together with the submerged lands lying between
those streets extended east to the harbor line established by the Secretary of War; • another grants
to the South Park Commissioners title to all submerged and artificial lands between the south
boimdary of Jackson Park and the south line of Seventy-ninth Street extended one thousand feet
into Lake Michigan, and to the land included within a triangle formed by the shore of Lake Michi-
gan, the extension of Ninety-fifth Street and the extension of the state boundary line.*
This legislation did not authorize the condemnation of riparian rights, but only the acquisi-
tion of such rights by negotiation. To facilitate settlement, an Act passed May 2, 1907,* em-
powered the park commissioners, with the approval of the Circuit Court, to agree with the riparian
owners upon a boundary line between the public park and the private shore lands, and to convey
to the riparian owners all submerged land lying inside of the boundary line thus fixed by agreement ;
in other words, the park board, having received from the state a grant of its title to the bed of the
lake, is authorized to sell and convey to the shore owners so much thereof as may be necessary to
induce them to release their riparian rights. If any shore land is owned by persons who are in-
competent to contract or who are unknown, the power is given to condemn their riparian rights,
* Hunt's Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1562.
' Hurd's Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1563.
' Hurd's Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1564.
* Hurd's Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1565.
* Hurd's Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1570.
138 PLAN OF CHICAGO
pursuant to the provisions of the statute of eminent domain. That power should not be limited
to the lands of unknown or legally incompetent owners. Under this legislation, the park board
has power to build a boulevard far out into the lake and to settle with the riparian owners by con-
veying to them as wide a strip of the submerged lands as may be deemed expedient ; and the shore
owners will then have the right to fill in such submerged strip, thus adding extensive areas of valu-
able shore land to their present holdings. The constitutionality of this legislation is virtually
settled by the case of People v. Kirk^ 162 HI. 138, sustaining a similar arrangement between the
Lincoln Park board and the proprietors of the shore south of Oak Street. The Lincoln Park
board has been given power to condemn shore lands and riparian rights under an amendment of
Section 2 of ,an act passed June 15, 1895, ^^^ court proceedings are authorized for the establish-
ment of the boundary line between the park lands and the lands of private owners.*
The right of the state to authorize structures which might interfere with navigation is sub-
ordinate to the paramount control of the War Department of the United States; and the improve-
ments contemplated by the legislation last described cannot be carried out without the consent
of the Secretary of War. Proceedings looking to a grant of such consent were temporarily stayed
by the remonstrance of Mayor Busse, and the appointment by him, under authority of the city
council, of the Chicago Harbor Commission, which has made a comprehensive study and detailed
report on the harbors of the city, together with recommendations as to harbor, railway terminal,
and park plans along that part of the shore of Lake Michigan between Twelfth Street and Jackson
Park. The report is entirely favorable to the essential features of the plan for park and boule-
vard development on the Lake Front, but with appropriate reservations for future harbor develop-
ment. It strongly favors the accomplishment of such plans at the earliest possible moment,
stating that "there is no real conflict between the harbor and the park interests of Chicago and
no artificial or unnecessary discord should be permitted to retard the complete and prompt exe-
cution of the plans necessary for the development of both sides of the cit3r's life," It recommends
that " a detailed plan carrying out this idea should be worked out jointly by the experts of the
park authorities and an expert engineer appointed by the city, subject to the approval of the city
council and the South Park Conunissioners," and urges immediate action by these authorities.
As soon as such a plan can be worked out and the consent of the War Department be secured,
there is nothing but the question of ways and means to delay the execution of this plan. The
legislature has already authorized the South Park board, upon obtaining authority from the
people at an election, to issue bonds up to the constitutional limit for the construction of the Lake
Front Park.'
^ Kurd's Statutes, edition of 1908, p. 1540.
' House Bill No. 352, introduced in the Illinois legislature on March 33, 1909, proposes to confer on the city complete legal power
to create harbors and provides as follows: "Sec. 14. For the purpose of acquiring or constructing wharves, docks, levees, or in con-
nection with such wharves, docks, or levees, elevators, warehouses, vaults or necessary or appropriate tracks or terminal facilities, the
city may reclaim the submerged lands under any public waters within the jurisdiction of or bonlering upon the City of Chicago, and
shall thereupon be vested with the absolute title, m fee simple, to the lands so reclaimed; and for any of the purposes aforesaid the
city may acquire, by purchase, condemnation or otherwise, the title of the private or public owners, if any there be, to lands Xyyag be-
neath such public waters and to any lands penetratinjg into or abutting on such public waters, and also the riparian or other rights, if
any there be, of the owners of the shore lands abutting on such public waters in or over such public waters or the submerged lands
under such waters. The city and the owner or owners of any such abutting lands or riparian or other rights are hereby authorized to
agree upon a division of the said submerged lands between Uie said city and the said owners, and upon a boundary line dividing the
submerged lands acquired or to be acquired by said city, and the submerged lands to be taken, owned and used by said owners in
lieu of and as compensation for the release or transfer of such riparian or other rights to said city; subject, however, to the requirement
that in all cases in which said city shall have agreed upon any such division, the said city shall file a petition or petitions in chancery
and obtain a decree of court thereon, in like manner as is provided with respect to boards of park commissioners in and bv a statute
of the State of Illinois entitled, 'An Act authorizing park commissioners to acquire and improve submerged and shore lands for park
purposes, providing for the payment therefor, and granting unto such commissioners certain rights and powers and to riparian owners
certain rignts and titles,' approved May 2, 1907."
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 139
TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS
The readjustment of freight and passenger traffic and the relocation of raibx>ad terminab is
a subject which requires little comment from a legal point of view. When railway companies are
brought to the point of hearty co-operation with the Chicago Plan, the powers which they already
enjoy will be foimd adequate to the execution of their part- The state has placed at their service
all necessary powers of eminent domain, and those portions of streets and alleys required for rail-
way terminals may be vacated by the city. Although the action of the city coimcil in vacating
streets to make room for a railway station has been attacked, it has been sustained by the lower
courts.
It may be that the legislature should be asked to confer upon the city additional powers that
would enable it to acquire property for railway terminals and appropriate connections to be used
by the various transportation lines on just terms. A city cannot condemn land for the purpose
of tiuning it over to a railway corporation, but there can be little doubt of the power of the legis-
lature to authorize a city to condemn land in order to create a central clearing place for traffic.
Chapter 247 of the Acts of the legislature of Wisconsin for the year 1907 is an example of a law
designed for that end. This statute authorizes cities of the first class to acquure, establish, own
and operate railway terminab, and to condemn land for that purpose. Having established such
a terminal, the city may permit any railroad corporation to use it upon agreed terms, or, if the
parties cannot agree, then upon terms to be fixed by the state raihx)ad commission. To meet
the first cost, the city is authorized to issue "railway terminal certificates," payable only out of the
revenues derived from the terminab for the acquisition of which they are issued. These certifi-
cates may be secured by trust deed, and there are provisions for foreclosure similar in many
respects to those contained in the so-called "Mueller Law" enacted by the legislature of Illinois,
authorizing mimicipal ownership of street railways. Under the decision of the Supreme Court of
Illinois,* such certificates would constitute "indebtedness" of the city, and the amount which
could be issued at any time would be controlled by the constitutional limitation of municipal
indebtedness. That mimicipal certificates or bonds secured by revenue-producing utilities and
not made a charge upon the other property or general credit of the city should be exempted from
the general constitutional debt limit is advocated by men of widely. diflFerent opinions upon the
public-utility question,' and is provided in various state constitutions.* Constitutional amend-
ments to this eflfect are being proposed in New York and elsewhere.
CONTROL OF LANDS ADJACENT TO PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS
In order to secure the full benefit of a park, boulevard, avenue or other place of public recrea-
tion or resort, some control of the immediate surroimdings is indispensable. The municipal
authorities which establish parks, boulevards, and other public places need some power to regu-
late the use of premises within immediate view of the public grounds, so as to prevent oflfensive
1 LobdOl V. Chicago, 337 HI. 318
' See Report of National Civic Federation Commissbn on Public Ownership and Operation, Part i, Vol. i, p. 35.
' Digest of City Charters, prepared for Chicago Charter Convention, pp. 35, 36.
I40 PLAN OF CHICAGO
advertising, restrict the kinds of business, if any, to be conducted thereon, and make appropriate
regulation of the height, manner of construction, and kxradon of the surrounding buiklings- To
that end, rescHt must be had either to the police power or to the power of eminent domain.
The police power of the state is not available for merely aesthetic purposes, and is quite inade-
quate to the solution of this q[)ecial problem. Owners of land, under existing constitutional limi-
tations, can with impimity lease to advertising companies the ri^t to erect safely constructed bill-
boards and paint the sides and roofs of bams with any advertisements not injurious to morals or
contrary to public decency; nor can vulgarities which merely offend the ^^t and shock tempera-
mental susceptibilities be construed as breaches of decency. ^'It is believed," says a writer in the
Harvard Law Review,^ ^^that both on theoretical and practical grounds the law must be taken
as settled that, although public aesthetic ends may be effectuated by statute or ordinance throu^
the exercise of eminent domain, the same object may not be accomplished by kgislation under
the police power without compensation."
In the case of Chicago v. Gunning System^ 214 HI. 628, the Supreme Court of Illinois de-
clared that the legislature, by conferring authority upon the city council to abate nuisances and
enforce police ordinances, had given that body ample power to regulate, within reasonable limits,
the construction of billboards upon private property; but the court nevertheless condemned a
particular ordinance for the reason, among others, that the piupose of certain sections seemed
^' to be mainly sentimental and to prevent sights which may be offensive to the aesthetic sensibil-
ities of certain individuals redding in or passing through the vicinity of the billboards."
A broader control may, however, be exerted imder the power of eminent domain. It is
possibly within the capacity of the legislature to authorize park boards or other governmental
bodies to acquire by condemnation proceedings, upon payment of compensation, the right, even
in country districts, to restrict the use of all land within view of a driveway or park; but the exer-
cise of that power with respect to property which does not actually front on the park or driveway
scarcely falls within the domain of practical consideration in connection with the present Plan.
Nearer the center of urban population, where the billboard nuisance is even more aggravated,
the city is now the only effective repository of the police power. The county is not at present a
factor in the problem; and park boards, while they have adequate police jurisdiction in their own
territory, have none outside. It is competent for the city coimcil, in the exercise of the police
power, to regulate the construction of advertising signs for the protection of public decency or
public safety by reasonable ordinances, but not to prohibit them altogether, nor restrict their size,
construction, or location more than is reasonably necessary to keep them within the limit of safety;
nor could land abutting upon parks and boulevards be subjected to substantially different regu-
lations in this respect from those imposed upon property fronting on business streets. In the
case of Chicago v. Gunning System^ already adverted to, a provision forbidding the erection of
billboards on residence streets without the consent of residents in the block was condemned by
the court as "an arbitrary restriction on the part of the city, depriving an individual property
owner of the use of his property as he may choose, without any showing that such use would be
injurious to others in the same vicinity." The city coimcil cannot condemn as a nuisance what
the law adjudges not to be a nuisance. In order, therefore, to control offensive advertising by
such regulations as the city ought to have power to impose, resort must be had to some other func-
tion of government than the police power.
* VoL XX, p. 43
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 141
The construction of buildings is also subject to some regulation under the police power. The
city is vested with authority to prescribe the strength and manner of constructing buildings, to
define fire limits, and to pass and enforce all necessary police ordinances; and the power con-
ferred upon it to pass "all necessary police ordinances*' is construed as delegating to the city all
the appropriate police power of the state.* No question is made but that the city council has
power to regulate the height of buildings with a view to health and public safety; but it may be
doubted whether the police power would justify the municipal authorities in imposing more
rigorous restrictions upon the character of buildings to be constructed along boulevards and
aroimd parks than in other parts of the city. The Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts
has sustained the right of the legislature to delegate to a city the power to regulate the height of
buildings, to prescribe different regulations for different districts, and to invest a commission with
the right to determine the boundaries between such districts,' and has expressed the opinion
that certain special regulations of the height of buildings aroimd a public square might be imposed
under the police power without making compensation.* It is doubtful whether local distinctions
of this character would be sustained in Chicago imder existing legislation, except in so far as they
might be justified by the power to establish fire limits. The legislature might delegate to city
councils the power to district the city and prescribe different building limits in different districts;
but any distinctions of this sort would have to rest upon real differences, and it remains doubtful
whether the police power could be invoked to justify making a special district of the area surroimd-
ing a public square or avenue. The coimcil could not be invested with authority to establish
building lines without awarding compensation to the owner; * nor could the legislature confer the
right to regulate arbitrarily the character of the business to be conducted in premises abutting on
a boulevard.* A business which is an actual nuisance may be prohibited altogether; and the
legal machinery exists for excluding saloons and some other kinds of business from limited areas.
Such exercise of the police power must, however, bear some reasonable relation to the public
health, safety, or morals, and could not, under existing constitutional restraints, be extended to
business in general.
Such being the limits of the police power, it is evident that, in order to secure any effective
control of the environs of a public place, resort must be had to some authority of wider scope, and
the only available power is that of eminent domain, under which the state and its agencies have the
right to take any private property for a public use, upon providing just compensation. The areas
adjacent to a public place could probably be controlled under this power, either by condemning
them outright as a part of the improvement, or by condemning merely a qualified right to regulate
and control them. If they were taken outright, the question would arise whether they could be
resold subject to the necessary restrictions upon their future use; thus reducing the cost of the
improvement to the extent of the increase in the value of this land caused by the improvement.
The right to appropriate private property for public use is an attribute of sovereignty, exist-
ing in the state independently of written constitutions, and vested in the general assembly by those
provisions of the constitution which confer upon that body the legislative power of the state. In
Illinois, as in all of the states, the power of the legislature to take private property for the use of
^ McPherson v. Village of ChSbanse, 114 111. 46.
* Wdch V. Swasey, 193 Mass. 364.
' AtUmey General v. Williams, 174 Mass. 476.
* CUy of Si. Louis v. Hill, 116 Mo. 527; Chicago v. Gtmning System, 9i4» lU. 638.
' Cily of St, Louis v. Dorr, 145 Mo. 466.
142 PLAN OF CHICAGO
the community is subject to two constitutional limitations: one, that just compensation must be
provided for all property so taken; the other, that private property cannot be taken, even upon
payment of its full value, for any except a public use. These two restrictions are also imposed by
the fourteenth amendment of the federal constitution, which declares that no state shall deprive
any person of property without due process of law. Subject to these qualifications, the state has
unlimited power to appropriate through its legislature any property within its borders which has
become the subject of private ownership; and this power of eminent domain the l^slature may
delegate, with or without restrictions, to any subordinate agency. The expediency of the exercise
of that power in any given case is a subject over which the courts have no control, unless they
can say that the proposed use is not public. On these general principles all the authorities are
The United States Supreme Court has frequently stated the principles of the law of eminent
domain. In Boom Company v. Patterson, g8 U. S. 403, Mr. Justice Field, in delivering the opinion
of the court, said:
"The right of eminent domain, that is, the right to take private property for public uses, appertains
to every independent government It requires no constitutional recognition : it is an attribute of sover-
eignty. The clause fomid in the constitutions of the several states providing for just compensation for
property taken is a mere limitation upon the exercise of the right. When the use is public, the necessity
or expediency of appropriating any particular property is not a subject of judicial cognizance. The prop-
aty may be appropriated by an act of the legi^ture, or the power of appropriating it may be delegated to
private corporations, to be exercised by them in the execution of works in which the public is interested."
Parks, boulevards, and places of recreation are now universally recognized as legitimate
objects of public concern, for which the power of eminent domain may appropriately be exercised ;
and it seems clear that if private property can be taken to create such utilities, it may also be taken
for the purpose of realizing the full benefit of these works by adequate control of the surroundings.
The legislature might at least authorize a city, park district, or other subordinate agency to exercise
the power of eminent domain by imposing upon property in the neighborhood of a public place
restrictions upon the location or character of the buildings to be erected, or the kinds of business,
if any, to be conducted upon such adjacent land. It could not be successfully argued that such
a use was not public.
The conception of a public use must alter and expand with the development of civilization,
and especially with the growth of cities. In sustaining an act of Coi^;ress providing for the con-
demnation of land for a public park in the District of Columbia, and asses^ng part of the cost
upon the property ^)ecially benefited, the Supreme Court, in the case of Shoemaker v. United
Slates, 147 U.S. 382, 397, speaking through Mr. Justice Shiras, said:
"In the memory of men now Uving, a proposition to take private property, without the consent of its
owner, for a public park, and to assess a proportionate part of the cost upon real estate benefited thereby,
would have been regarded as a novel exercise of legislative power. It is true that, in the case of many of
the older cities and towns, there were common or pubUc groimds, but the purpose of these was not to pro-
vide places for exercise and recreation, but places on which the owners of domestic animals might pasture
them in common, and they were generally laid out as part of the original plan of the town or city. It is
said, in Johnson's Cyclopedia, that the Central Park of New York was the first place deliberately pro-
vided for the inhabitants of any city or town in the United States for exclusive use as a pleasure ground for
rest and exercise in the open air. However that may be, there is now scarcely a city of any con^derable
size in the entire country that does not have, or has not projected, such parks. The validity of the legis-
lative acts erecting such parks, and providing for their cost, has been uniformly upheld."
^
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 143
Again, in the case of Attorney General v. WilliamSy 174 Mass. 476, the Supreme Judicial
Coiut of Massachusetts used the following language:
"The uses which should be deemed public in reference to the right of the legislature to compel an in-
dividual to part with his property for a compensation, and to authorize or direct taxation to pay for it, are
being enlarged and extended with the progress of the people in education and refinement. Many things
which a century ago were luxuries, or were altogether unknown, have now become necessaries. It is only
within a few years that lands have been taken in this country for public parks. Now the right to take land
for this purpose is generally recognized and frequendy exercised The grounds on which public
parks are desired are various. They are to be enjoyed by the people who use them. They are expected to
minister not only to the grosser senses, but also to the love of the beautiful in nature, in the varied forms
which the changing seasons bring. Their value is enhanced by such touches of art as help to produce
pleasing and satisfactory effects on the emotional and spiritual side of our nature. Their influence should
be uplifting, and, in the highest sense, educational. If wisely planned and properly cared for, they promote
the xnental as wdl as the physical health of the people. For this reason it has always been deemed proper
to expend money in the care and adornment of them, to make them beautiful and enjoyable. Their
aesthetic effect never has been thought unworthy of careful consideration by those best qualified to appreciate
it It hardly would be contended that the same reasons which justify the taking of land for a public park
do not also justify the expenditure of money to make the park attractive and educaticmal to those whose
tastes are being formed, and whose love of beauty is being cultivated."
When once it is conceded that a use is public, the courts have no control over the character
of the estate or easement to be taken for the purpose. The constitution of Illinois provides, indeed,
that when a railroad company condenms a right-of-way the fee shall remain in the former owner;
but, subject to that restriction as to these particular corporations, the legislature has unlimited
power to specify the natiure, extent, and duration of the estate that shaD be taken for any public
use. Having the right to authorize the taking of an absolute title, it could direct the appropria-
tion of any lesser interest; and could confer upon public bodies power to condemn the right to
restrict the use and improvement of property contiguous to public grounds.
It does not appear, however, that the present statutes of Illinois do confer upon munici-
palities any express power to condemn such easements over lands contiguous to a street, boulevard,
park or other public place. In the legislation imder which the West Chicago Park Commissioners
were incorporated and organized, there were sections expressly directing the park commissioners
to impose building lines upon property adjacent to the parks and boulevards authorized thereby,
and in the condemnation proceedings compensation was to be included for this burden. The
West Park board, however, never undertook to avail itself of these extensive powers, which were
limited to the acquisition of the original parks and boulevards authorized by the act. It might
be argued that the city, under its present authority to establish and enlarge parks, boulevards, and
streets, could condenm such easements directly, or that it could condenm a wide strip for a new
street or land contiguous to an old street, and, by the familiar device of a stipulation entered of
record in the condenmation suit, limit the appropriation to a restricted control of the use of the
property. The latter method, if lawful, would be clumsy and inadequate, and additional leg-
islation would be desirable to enable public authorities effectively to acquire, imder the power
of eminent domain, a qualified jurisdiction or control over property of which the exclusive use is
not taken.
Even such a law, however, would fall short of the public need. To give the city or other
agency a free hand in controlling the environs of a public place, the authorities should be invested
with power to acquire the actual title, and then to dispose of it subject to such restrictions as might
be deemed expedient. This course offers the double advantage of giving the public agency abso-
144 PLAN OF CHICAGO
lute control of the future use and improvement of the surroimding property, and of enabling it,
if the price of acquisition is not too great, to recoup in some measure the cost of the improvement
by seDing the residual title. A lot abutting on a park or boulevard might be worth much more
after it had become part of a larger area subject to imiform building lines and restrictions than
it was in its imenciunbered condition ; and the public authorities, by treating the whole improve-
ment and its environment as a imit, might reap a pecuniary advantage which they could not
have conferred upon individual owners even if they had desired to do so. An examination of
the power of municipalities to take land in excess of physical requirements involves two questions:
first, whether extra land can be taken merely for the purpose of selling it and defra)dng the cost of
the improvement; and, second, whether, even if that right is denied, such land can be condenmed
and resold for the purpose of imposing upon it building or sanitary restrictions and limitations of use.
As already stated, it may be accepted as elementary that neither the state, through its leg-
islative department, nor any subordinate agency of the state can take a man's property against
his will, under the power of eminent domain, merely for the purpose of giving it or selling it to
another man. Such a taking would not be for public use and would violate the state and federal
constitutions. It by no means follows, however, that a state agency, exercising the power of
eminent domain, is always forbidden to derive profit from the sale of property not found to be
actually needed. The activities of the Sanitary District of Chicago sufl&ce to show how an area
larger than is demanded by the ultimate needs of the public work may be acquired and converted
into a source of revenue. A municipal corporation enjoys a large discretion in determining for
itself how much land it needs for its public works, and courts will not ordinarily curb its freedom of
action unless the exercise of the power of eminent domain is clearly excessive. If the city coimcil
saw fit to condemn a strip of land five himdred feet wide for an avenue or boulevard, the courts
would have no right to question its decision unless, in the particular instance, there was some
'* manifest injustice, oppression or gross abuse of power";* nevertheless, if it did clearly appear
as a fact that the ultimate object was to lay out an avenue only one hundred feet in width, the
question would be squarely presented whether the margins on each side could be taken outright
in order to govern their future use and development.
In an early New York case, a legislative attempt to authorize the taking of more land than was
actually needed was condenmed by the court in the foDowing language:
"This power has been supposed to be convenient when the greater part of a lot is taken, and only a
small part left not required for public use, and that small part of but little value in the hands of the owner.
In such case the corporation has been supposed best qualified to take and dispose of such parcels, or gores,
as they have sometimes been called; and probably this assumption of power has been acquiesced m
by the proprietors. I know of no case where the power has been questioned and where it has received the
deliberate sanction of this court. Suppose a case where only a few feet or even inches are wanted from one
end of a lot to widen a street, and a vduable building stands upon the other end of such lot, would the power
be conceded to exist to take the whole lot, whether the owner consented or not? Or suppose the commis-
sioners had deemed it expedient and proper in this case, in the language of the statute, to take the whole of
the churchyard, the act would have been equally within the letter of the statute with their act in the present
case ; and yet no one would suppose that the legislature ever intended to confer such a power. The quan-
tity of the residue of any lot cannot vary the principle. The owner may be very unwilling to part with only
a few feet ; and I hold it equally incompetent for the legislature thus to dispose of private property, whether
feet or acres are the subject of this assumed power. I am clearly of opinion that the commissioners have
no right to take the strip of land in question against the consent of the corporation of Trinity Church." *
* Dunham v. Hyde Park, 75 HI. 371.
' Matter o] Albany Street, xx Wend. 148.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 145
While there is a dearth of modem authority on this subject, it is believed that the courts would
still accept the reasoning of this Albany Street case, and would sustain the position of an owner
who refused to surrender his property in order merely to diminish the cost of a public improvement.
Such enactments, however, though void as to an unwilling property owner, are valid in so far as
they confer authority on the city to take and pay for the whole parcel with the owner's consent,
and to spend the people's money for that purpose.* A plan for acquiring a lai^e area by private
purchase could not be successfully carried out if one or two of the proprietors could refuse to part
with their property, and such a scheme must therefore be confined within the limits of the power
of eminent domain.
In order to justify the appropriation of a zone outside of the actual lines of the public space,
it must appear that the property is to be made, in some sort, a part of the improvement; and that
fact does appear when the control of the debatable zone is sought in order to save the environment
of the public place from disfigurement or objectionable use. That end sufl&ces to justify the con-
denmation of some interest in the zone ; and it is well established by the authorities that when the
public good requires the appropriation of some interest, the legislature is sole judge of the par-
ticular nature of the interest that shall be taken, and may, without being answerable to any court,
declare that the interest to be taken shall be a fee simple absolute. A railway company does not
require the title, or even the exclusive use, of its entire right-of-way; yet it is not doubted that, in
the absence of a constitutional restriction, the legislature might authorize a railway company to
take the entire title. In most states, the fee of a street remains in the owner of the property over
which the street is laid out imder the power of eminent domain ; yet there is no question but that
the legislature has power to vest the fee in the city. The Supreme Court of Minnesota, in the
case of FairchUd v. St. Patd, 46 Minn. 540, where the question was raised whether the city acquired
through condemnation proceedings the actual title to the street or only an easement, stated the
established principles of the law in the following language:
"There is nothing better setded than that, the power of eminent domain being an incident of sover-
eignty, the time, manner and occasion of its exercise are wholly in the control and discretion of the legis-
lature, except as restrained by the constitution. It rests in the wisdom of the legislature to determine when
and in what manner the public necessities require its exercise; and with the reasonableness of the exercise
of that discretion the courts will not interfere. As the legislature is the sole judge of the public necessity
which requires or renders expedient the exercise of the power of eminent domain, so it is the exclusive judge
of the amount of land, and of the estate in land, which the public end to be subserved requires to be
taken. * * *
"When the use is public, the necessity or expediency of appropriating any particular property is not
a subject of judicial cognizance. Consequendy, if in the legislative judgment it is expedient to do so, it has
the power expressly to authorize a municipal corporation compulsorily to acquire the absolute fee simple to
lands of private persons condemned for street or any other public purpose. The authorities are so numer-
ous and uniform to this effect that an extended citation of them is unnecessary. * * * It is often laid down
as the law that the taking of property must always be limited to the necessity of the case, and, consequendy,
no more can be appropriated in any instance than is needed for the particular use for which the appropri-
ation is made. But it will be found that this is almost invariably said, not in discussing the extent of the
power of the legislature, but with reference to the construction of statutes granting authority to exercise the
right of eminent domain, and where the authority to take a certain quantity of land or a particular estate
therein depended, not upon an express grant of power to do so, but upon the existence of an alleged necessity,
firom which the disputed power is to be implied."
The city of Brookl)m acquired land for public parks under a statute authorizing the acquisi-
' Embury y. Conner, 3 N. Y. 511; Dorgan v. Boston, la Allen, 223.
146 PLAN OF CHICAGO
tion of the title, and the court, in sustaining the vaKdity of a subsequent act of the legislature
authorizing the sale of portions of the land no longer needed, said:
'* Doubtless, in most cases, when land is condemned for a special purpose on the score of public utility,
the sequestration is limited to that particular use. But this is where the property is not taken, but the use
only. Then, the right of the public being limited to the use, when the use ceases the right ceases. Where
the property is taken, the owner paid its true value, and the tide vested in the public, it owns the whole
property, and not merely the use ; and though the particular use may be abandoned, the right to the prop-
erty remains." *
Land acquired for canal purposes has ofteji been held to have vested absolutely in the state,
so that upon abandonment of the canal the premises could be devoted to a difiFerent use or sold to
a private purchaser.*
Some courts have intimated that land condemned for park purposes is presumptively dedi- i
cated to that use forever; and, hence, that authority to condemn for such a use impUes authority
to take the absolute title. Moreover, if a statute provided that land acquired for a public
purpose could be sold when no longer needed, the implication would seem to be imavoidable
that the title acquired under the statute was absolute. No general authority, however, has as
yet been conferred upon municipalities in this state to take under the power of eminent domain a
title that would survive the pubUc use.
Under appropriate legislation, then, a city could take the absolute fee to any property m
which it required an interest for the public use. It is equally weD settled that the legislature can
authorize the sale of any such land when it is no longer needed for the purpose for which it was
acquired. The property, it is true, is held in trust for the public, but that trust could be reUn-
quished by authority of the legislatmre, which represents the public, and the property could then
be sold; and the authority to sell such surplus when no longer needed could be contained in the
act authorizing the original condemnation. Of such a statute it was said in Matter of City of
Rochester 137 N. Y. 243:
"It is claimed that this provision is in conflict with the provisions of the constitution respecting the
taking of private property for public use, as it in fact authorizes the city to take it for a purpose not public.
We think the objection is without merit or substance. Of course, the city could not take private property
for the purpose of selling it or dealing in it ; but, having once acquired it for a park, and it becoming, in the
course of time, unnecessary or useless for that purpose, by the growth of the city or other changes in the sit-
uation, a sale in the manner prescribed by the statute would be within the legitimate functions of the city as
a municipal corporation, and power to that end, conferred by the legislature at any time, or in the act dLUthor-
izing the taking, cannot invalidate the delegated right to exercise the power of eminent domain."
The power of the municipality to sell superfluous land imder the authority of such a statute
could not be challenged at the time of sale. If the title had been acquired, it could be sold. The
only question that could be raised would be one in the original condemnation proceeding as to the
power to take the land at all. That question would be merely the question of good faith. The
petitioner could be made to file plans showing some reasonable need for the property sought to be
condemned; and the courts would not permit an obvious abuse of the power of eminent domain
either by the state legislature or by any of its agencies. It is beUeved, however, that no question of
abuse or bad faith could arise when the legislature was shown to have authorized, in its sovereign
discretion, the taking of the whole title as the most direct and convenient method of controlling
the use.
* Brooklyn Park Coinm*rs. v. Armstrongs 45 N. Y. 234, 243.
'Heyward v. New York, 7 N. Y. 314; Rexjord v. Knight, 11 N. Y. 308; M alone v. Toledo, 34 Ohio, 541.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 147
An instructive case bearing upon this argument is that of Dingley v. Boston^ 100 Mass. 544.
For the purpose of draining and grading up a part of the Back Bay district, the Massachusetts
legislature authorized the city of Boston to take land within a certain area, and provided that the
title should vest in the city. The contemplated use, although extensive, was merely temporary;
when the land was filled and the surface raised to a higher grade, the purpose for which it was
taken would have been accomplished. The Supreme Court, nevertheless, holds that it was the
object of the statute to authorize the taking of a fee simple absolute, and that after the filling had
been completed the title remained in the city, subject to such use or disposition as the authorities
might deem expedient. The use being public, it could not be said that the taking of a fee simple
was any the less for public use than the taking of a smaller estate would have been ; the legislature
was sole judge of the expediency of taking one or the other. The coiut speaks as follows:
"The act provides that the city government may first take the land, and thereby transfer to the city
a tide in fee simple, without the consent of the owners. It is contended that, as the only object of the act
is to abate a nuisance, the act ought only to have granted the power to occupy the land temporarily until
the object of the act should be effected, and it should then be restored to the owners, with a provision that
the benefit done to the land should be applied in offset to the damages. It is true that the raising of the
grade does not require an occupation of the land for a great length of time. When this work is completed
the nuisance will be abated, and the land will be in a condition to be occupied by private persons. But
its condition will be gready changed ; almost as much so as raising flats into upland. The former surface
will be deeply buried under the earth that will have been brought upon it, and the changed condition is to
be perpetual. If the old property is restored, the new property which has been annexed to it must go with
it. This would be very \mjust to the city, who have been compelled to incur the great expense of destroy-
ing the nuisance, unless the owner were required to make a reasonable compensation, which might be far
beyond the amount of the damages to which he would be entided.
"It would be difficult to adjust the matter; and in many cases it might operate harshly upon the
owner to compel him to take and pay for the improvements. On the whole, therefore, the plan of com-
pelling the city to take the land in fee simple, and the owner to part with his whole title for a just compen-
sation, would seem to be the most simple and equitable that could be adopted ; unless there is some objection
on the ground that a fee simple is more sacred than an estate for life or years, or than an easement of greater
or less duration. We can see no ground for regarding one of these tides as more sacred than another, or
for regarding land as more sacred than personal property. * * *
" Whether land be taken under the clause authorizing the making of wholesome and reasonable laws,
or by virtue of the clause authorizing the appropriation of private property to public uses, it must in either
case be left to the legislature to decide what quantity of estate ought to be taken in order to accomplish its
purpose, and do the most complete justice to all parties."
If a municipality were justified in taking an area in order to control the surroundings of a
park or boulevard, the proceeding would not be rendered iU^al by the fact, if fact it was, that the
hope of pecuniary profit was a strong, or even the controDing, motive. If there is a sound basis
which justifies the action of public officials, the motive by which those officials are actuated is
not open to judicial inquiry.*
If, then, it be a Intimate part of a public improvement — as few would question that it
is — to impose appropriate restrictions upon the use and improvement of adjacent property,
and if, as seems probable, the condemnation of the entire tide can be authorized for that purpose,
a municipal body could be empowered by the l^slature to acquire tide to land outside of the
physical area of improvement; and if the municipality had also been authorized by the l^isla-
ture to sell any interest no longer needed in any of its land, it coiUd sell the land subject to all
necessary conditions or restrictions; nor would it lie in the mouth of any coxirt to question the
» Meyer v. TetOopoUs, 131 IlL 552; PeopU v. WuMdi, 233 III. 572; Wisconsin Rher Improvement Co. v. Pier, 118 N. W.
Rep. 857.
148 PLAN OF CHICAGO
proceeding or brand it as ill^al because the real, efficient motive may have been to get the bene-
fit of the enhancement in the value of the property.
There is probably no constitutional obstacle to l^slation investing a city, park board, county,
or other appropriate agency with power to condemn as part of or supplementary to a public rni-
provement such contiguous area as the reasonable needs of the improvement itself might require
to be subjected to proper restrictions; nor could such a law be condemned by reason of its also
authorizing the sale of the land subject to such conditions or restrictions as the public author-
ities saw fit to impose upon it.*
If any local legislation authorizing the condemnation and sale of surplus lands were brought
to the test, the question for the courts would be whether the use for which the property was taken
was a public one ; and it must be borne in mind that upon this point the judgment of the Supreme
Court of a state would not be final. By the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the
United States it is provided that no state shall deprive any person of property without due process
of law; and it is now setded that this clause prohibits the taking of private property for any use
that is not public. The United States Supreme Court, however, has always paid the greatest
deference to the opinions of state legislatures and the state judiciary as to what uses are public.
The power of the United States Supreme Coxirt to review a state decision in this particular, and
also the extreme respect which will be paid to local decisions, are both weD illustrated in the case
of Clark V. Nashj 198 U. S. 361, sustaining a statute of the state of Utah, by the terms of which
an individual land owner was empowered to condemn the right of conveying water in a ditch
across his neighbor's land for the purpose of irrigating his own farm. Mr. Justice Peckham,
delivering the opinion of the court, said :
"In some states, probably in most of them, the proposition contended for by the plaintiffs in error
would be sound. But whether a statute of a state permitting condemnation by an individual for the pur-
pose of obtaining water for his land or for mining should be held to be a condemnation for a public use,
and therefore a valid enactment, may depend upon a number of considerations relating to the situation
of the state and its possibilities for land cultivation, or the successful prosecution of its mining or other in-
dustries. Where the use is asserted to be public, and the right of the individual to condemn land for the
purpose of exercising such use is founded upon or is the result of some peculiar condition of the soil or climate,
or other peculiarity of the state, where the right of condemnation is asserted under a state statute, we are
always, where it can fairly be done, strongly inclined to hold with the state courts, when they uphold a state
statute providing for such condemnation. * * *
^ House Bill No. 350, Blinois, 1909, already mentioned, contains the following provisions, the legality of which is based upon the
conclusions above stated. ^
Art. IV, Sec. 10. "The city council, on recommendation of the board of park commissioners, shall have power to extend the
park system of the City of Chicago, both within and outside of the city limits, by adding to or otherwise enlarging any parks, and by
opening and establishing new parks, and by extinguishing or acquiring such title to, or such easements and rights in or over, any lands
abutting on or in the vicinity of any existing or projected park as may be necessaiy or appropriate to control the surroundings of such
park so as to increase the advantage thereof to the public, or secure to the public the full benefit, use and enjoyment thereof. For
any such purpose the city may extinguish easements or rights in land, and may acquire lands and easements and rights in or over
land, by gift, devise, dedication, purchase or condemnation, and may in its discretion, take under the power of eminent domain or
otherwise the title in fee simple absolute to any land which the city is authorized to acquire, or in or over which it is authorized to
acquire easements and rights as aforesaid, and such title shall not terminate or be defeated by cessation or abandonment of the use for
which it was acquired. The declaration of the city council that any such lands or easements or rights in or over land are necessary or
appropriate for any such puipose shall constitute sufficient prima facie evidence of such necessity or appropriateness. The city councfl
may vacate streets and alleys within the limits of or adjacent to any lands acquired for the purpose of this section."
Art. IV., Sec. 13. "The provisions in this Act contained authorizing the city to acquire the absolute title in fee simple to lands
in or over which the city is authorized to acquire easements or rights, shall be subject to the provision that any lands so taken for such
purpose shall, unless appropriated to some public use within ten (10) years after acquisition of the title thereto, be sold and disposed of by
the city in the manner now or hereafter provided by statute for the sale and conveyance of property no longer required for the use of the
city, subject, however, to such easements or rights in said lands, and to such conditions, covenants and restrictions re^>ecting the use or
improvement thereof as the city, upon recommendation of the board oi park commissioners, shall, in the deed oi conveyance, impose
or reserve, and subject further to the power (which is hereby granted) d the city council, with the consent of the board of park com-
missioners, to release, waive or (by or with the consent of the grantee or owner of the conveyed premises) alter any such easements
rights, conditions, covenants or restrictions."
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 149
" We do not desire to be understood by this decision as approving of the broad proposition that private
property may be taken in all cases where the taking may promote the public interest and tend to develop the
natural resources of the state. We simply say that in this particular case, and upon the facts stated in the
findings of the court, and having reference to the conditions already stated, we are of the opinion that the
use is a public one, although the taking of the right of way is for the purpose simply of thereby obtaining
the water for an individual, where it is absolutely necessary to enable him to make any use whatever of his
land, and which will be valuable and fertile only if water can be obtained."
Again, in the very recent case of HairsUm v. Danville 6* Western Railway Co., 208 U. S.
598, the facts were that the Supreme Court of Virginia had sustained a proceeding by which a rail-
road condemned land for a spur track to a tobacco factory, the owner of which agreed to reimburse
the company for the cost of acquiring the land. The decision of the federal court sustaining
the judgment of the state court was delivered by Mr. Justice Moody, who said :
"When we come to inquire what are public uses for which the right of compulsory taking may be em-
ployed, and what are private uses for which the right is forbidden, we find no agreement, either in reasoning
or conclusion. The one and only principle in which all courts seem to agree is that the nature of the uses,
whether public or private, is ultimately a judicial question. The determination of this question by the
courts has been influenced in the different states by considerations touching the resources, the capacity of
the soil, the relative importance of industries to the general public welfare, and the long-established methods
and habits of the people. In all these respects, conditions vary so much in the states and territories of the
Union that different results might well be expected No case is recalled where this court has con-
demned as a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment a taking upheld by the state court as a taking for public
uses in conformity with its laws We must not be understood as sa)dng that cases may not arise where
this court would decline to follow the state courts in their determination of the uses for which land could be
taken by the right of eminent domain. The cases cited, however, show how gready we have deferred to
the opinions of the state courts on this subject, which so closely concerns the welfare of their people. We
have found nothing in the Federal Constitution which prevents the condemnation by one person for his
individual use of a right of way over the land of another for the construction of an irrigation ditch ; of a
right of way over the land of another for an aerial bucket line ; or of the right to flow the land of another
by the erection of a dam. It remains for the future to disclose what cases, if any, of taking for uses which
the state constitution, law and court approve will be held to be forbidden by the Fourteenth Amendment to
the Constitution of the United States."
It thus appears that it would require an extreme case of mianifest abuse of the power of eminent
domain to lead the Supreme Court of the United States to condenm as private a use which a state
l^slature had recognized as public, and which had been sustained by the Supreme Court of the
state. If the abuse of power were manifest, the United States courts would not hesitate to con-
denm the proceeding, even though expressly sanctioned by the constitution of a state; but there
is every reason to believe that any method of taking and selling land justified by the reasonable
purpose of controDing the environs of a public place would withstand the scrutiny of the United
States Supreme Court if sanctioned by the legislative and judicial departments of the state gov-
ernment.
In concluding this topic, some experiments made in other states towards taking more prop-
erty than was demanded by the physical requirements of an improvement, either to control the
environs or for mere pecuniary considerations, may be passed briefly in review. The experience
of foreign countries need not be recounted here, since some governments, unlimited by consti-
tutional restrictions, have conducted real estate transactions of a wide range, far beyond any-
thing that could reasonably be contemplated in America. The State of New York had upon its
statute books early in the last century an act already adverted to, purporting to authorize munici-
palities to take all of a connected tract of land when only part was needed and to sell the surplus.
ISO PLAN OF CHICAGO
This statute was adjudged by the courts to be unconstitutional, in so far as it sought to author-
ize the taking, against the owners' consent, of land not actually needed. A resolution, however,
has, after many years, been introduced (January 27, 1909), in the senate of the State of New York
for the submission of a constitutional amendment in the foUowing language:
''When private property shall be taken for public use by a municipal corporation, additional adjoining
or neighboring property may be taken, under conditions to be prescribed by the l^slature by general law.
Property thus taken shall be deemed to be taken for public use."
In Massachusetts, Section 4 of Chapter 50 of the revised laws provides that the owner of
abutting land liable to assessment may at a certain stage of the proceedings give notice that he
elects to surrender his land ; in which event the board may, if it thinks expedient, take the whole
parcel at its estimated value, and any part not required may be sold. A somewhat similar statute,
authorizing an owner to convey to the city his entire property at its appraised value when part
of it was taken for widening a street, was involved, and by implication sustained, in the case of
Dargan v. Boston, 12 Allen, 223.
Chapter 443 of the Massachusetts laws of 1904 sanctions the taking of remnants of parcels
part of which are condemned for public improvement, and authorizes the dty to sell any of such
remnants subject to any building or other restrictions which the proper authorities may see fit
to impose. The power to take the whole of a tract when part only is needed is limited to the
case where the remnant after such taking would, from its size or shape, be unsuited for the erec-
tion of suitable and Appropriate buildings, and where also the public convenience and necessity
require such taking. There are provisions authorizing such renmants to be sold and united with
adjacent property if the owner thereof consents; but the l^islature refused to adopt the more
radical plan, recommended by a conmiittee, of uniting such remnants with the contiguous prop-
erty, without the consent of the owner thereof, by condemning his land in order to incorporate
the remnant with it and thus effect an advantageous sale. This act has never been tested in the
courts, and it may be surmised that, in spite of the very liberal views of the Massachusetts courts,
the fate of a proceeding under its provisions would be problematical, unless it could be made to
appear that the "public convenience and necessity" actually did require such taking of entire
tracts for the purpose of imposing upon the odd remnants some conditions and restrictions ger-
mane to the major improvement.
Another statute, framed on somewhat similar lines, but also never submitted to a judicial
test, is Section 10 of the Ohio Municipal Code, as amended in 1904. This section provides that
all municipal corporations shall have power to appropriate real estate within their corporate
limits for certain specific purposes, among which are the following:
"For establishing esplanades, boulevards, parkways, park grounds and public reservations in, around
and leading to public buildings, and for the purpose of reselling such land, with reservations in the deeds
of such resale as to the future use of said lands so as so protect public buildings and their environs, and to
preserve the view, appearance, light, air and usefulness of public grounds occupied by public buildings and
esplanades and parkways leading thereto."
Chapter 194 of the Acts of the Virginia General Assembly for the session of the year 1906
provides as follows :
"Any city or town of this Commonwealth may acquire by purchase, gift or condemnation property
adjoining its parks, or plats on which its monuments are located, or other property used for public purposes,
or in the vicinity of such parks, plats or property, which is used and maintained in such a manner as to im-
pair the beauty, usefulness or eflSciency of such parks, plats or public property, and may likewise acquire
property adjacent to any street, the topography of which, from its proximity thereto, impairs the convenient
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 151
use of such street, or renders impracticable, without extraordinary expense, the improvement of the same,
and the city or town so acquiring any such property may subsequently dispose of the property so acquired,
making limitations as to the uses thereof, which will protect the beauty, usefulness, eflSciency, or conven-
ience of such parks, plats or property."
CONGESTED AREAS
In considering a model plan for the city of Chicago, attention is naturally caDed to the ex-
ample of European cities which have removed the inhabitants from whole areas where the pop-
ulation was congested or the arrangement of the streets imwholesome, and have transplanted
them to new territory while the condemned area was being renovated or rebuilt. The Plan of
Chicago does not contemplate any imitation of such examples. The police power is adequate
to the destruction, without recompense, of single buildings which are insanitary or unsafe;
but the legislature of Illinois has not yet imdertaken to go further and license the condenmation
by mimicipal authorities of congested or imwholesome areas under the power of eminent domain.
Local drainage districts miay be organized, with power to reclaim wet agricultural lands and locate
ditches over private property, on the payment of proper compensation ; and it would also doubt-
less be competent for the legislature to sanction the taking by eminent domain of a district even
within the city which was by nature low or pestilent, as was done with the Back Bay flats in
Boston. Different considerations, however, apply to an area where the noxious conditions are due
to the arrangement of streets or to the manner of building upon land by individual owners. Each
proprietor might with reason demand the right to be dealt with individually; and if his own lot
was vacant, or was improved with buildings transgressing no sanitary laws or regulations, he
might weD oppose any scheme which required him to part with his land on account of the trans-
gression of his neighbors. A tract of land fit to breed pestilence because of the niggardliness
of nature might be reclaimed under the power of eminent domain, because the arch offender
was not subject to the police jurisdiction of the state; but if a plague spot has been created by
the fault of men, an innocent victim of their mialfeasance would have some reason and more law
on his side if he insisted upon the state proceeding against the culprits singly.
Accordingly, the Chicago Plan deals only incidentally with this subject. The city can, as
has been done in some European capitals, open wide thoroughfares and avenues through congested
areas, or take the heart of the district for a public park; and the legislature might authorize the
condenmation of a zone of reasonable width aroimd these open spaces on the principles already
laid down. It may be doubted, however, whether the courts would sustain as constitutional a
statute designed to appropriate a whole congested area merely for the purpose of renovating it.
If the power to do so in a flagrant case were sustained by the Supreme Court of the state, or if
such a project were authorized by constitutional amendment, the measure would probably not
be condenmed by the federal courts as contravening the Constitution of the United States. To
the opening of wide streets, however, through congested districts, as proposed in the Plan, there
is no obstacle unless it be the lack of financial resources.
PRESENT BORROWING AND TAXING POWERS
In canying out so comprehensive a scheme of development as is outlined in the Plan of Chi-
cago, some subsidiary sources of revenue may be found, but the main dependence must be upon
152 PLAN OF CHICAGO
the taxing power of the state and its agencies. Ciurent expenses are properly met by current
taxes; but it is a main principle of economics that the cost of permanent improvements should
be distributed over a series of years commensurate with the probable duration of the benefit.
Lest, however, the existing generation should lay inordinate burdens upon posterity, limitations
have been set upon the amount and duration of indebtedness which may be incurred by any mu-
nicipal body. Section 12 of Article IX of the constitution of the State of Illinois declares that no
municipal corporation shall become indebted for any purpose to an amoimt exceeding five per
cent of the value of the taxable property therein, as ascertained by the last assessment; and that,
at or before the time of incurring such debt, the municipality shall provide for the collection of a
direct annual tax sufl&cient to pay the interest and to discharge the principal within twenty years
from the time when the debt was contracted. Under the present revenue laws applicable to Cook
County, all taxable property is valued by assessors at its "full value," and one-fifth of that figure
is entered in the books as the ''assessed value," and, as afterwards equalized, is made the basis
on which all tax and debt limitations are computed.*
The constitutional limit of municipal indebtedness does not mean that every public corpora-
tion has power to incur debts to that amount. Mimicipalities have no greater powers than the
legislature confers upon them. There is no constitutional limit on the amount of taxes that the
legislature can authorize municipalities to levy.^ They may incur only such debts, not exceed-
ing the constitutional limit, and levy such taxes as the general assembly authorizes them to do.
Several municipal corporations, however, may be created under legislative authority fbr different
purposes, embracing all or part of the same territory, and each of these overlapping municipal-
ities may be given power to levy taxes and incur debts up to the constitutional limit. To re-
strain the increasing burden of taxes, the legislature in 1901 passed the so-called Juul law, designed
to limit the aggregate taxes which might be levied upon any commimity in any one year to five
per cent of the assessed valuation of property therein; but the constitutionality of this statute
has been questioned and the amendments of and nimierous exceptions to its provisions made
by the legislature have left its operation, if not its continued existence, so doubtful that its repeal
has been sought on divers occasions.*
The coimty of Cook is permitted to levy taxes not exceeding seventy-five cents on every
one himdred dollars, without popular vote, and to levy any additional taxes voted by the people.
County bonds may be voted by the people in any such amoimt as not to cause the total debt of the
coimty to exceed five per cent of the assessed value of the property therein. The assessed value
for the year 1908 was $514,730,186, of which five per cent is $25,736,509. Up to that limit the
county might become indebted by vote of the people. The present bonded debt is $9,360,000,
and the floating debt averages about $1,600,000. Without aiming at nicety of detail, it may be
said that the county has at present a borrowing capacity, in round figures, of $15,000,000. The
operation of the Juul law, however, now reduces the tax available for the general expenses
of Cook County to sixty-five cents on one hundred dollars; and the increasing demands upon
the county would probably necessitate a modification of this law, so as specifically to exclude
from its limitations the taxes necessary to care for additional bond issues and provide for future
maintenance of county parks or boulevards.
^ House Bill No. 393, introduced at Springfield, March ix, 1909, seeks to make the assessed value one-third, instead of one-
fifth, of the full value.
' Schnell v. Rock Island, 232 III. 89, g8.
' For the Juul law as amended see Hurd's Statutes of Illinois, edition of 1908, p. 18x4.
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 153
The city of Chicago is practically indebted at all times to the constitutional limit of five per
cent of its assessed valuation, and has been given power by the legislature to levy an annual tax
for corporate purposes not exceeding two per cent on that valuation, exclusive of taxes levied for
the payment of bonds. Under the operation of the Juul law, the maximiun rate has been cut
down to one and eight-tenths per cent. The assessed valuation of city property for 1908 was
$477,190,399. A two per cent tax on that amount is $9,543,808, and a five per cent indebtedness
would be $23,859,520. The legislature could authorize a higher annual tax, but could not, under
the constitution, increase the limit of indebtedness unless by means of some change in the method
of assessing the property on which the limitation was to be computed.* One of the chief reasons
for asking a new charter was to increase the bond-issuing power of the city by changing the
basis of computation of the limit of indebtedness.
The taxing powers of the three park districts in the city of Chicago are contained in a mass
of separate laws, which authorize the issuing of bonds for particular purposes and the lev3ang of
taxes to pay the interest and retire the principal. The park boards coiUd be authorized by the
legislature to incur debts somewhat in excess of their present bonded liability, without infringing
the provisions of the constitution; but here also the tax limitations of the Juul law would have
to be modified unless maintenance expenditures were scaled. The assessed valuation for the
year 1908 of property in the West Park district was $105,614,809, of which five per cent is
$5,280,740. The present bonded debt of the West Park board is $3,270,000, leaving a possible
margin of about $2,000,000 of additional indebtedness that the legislature could authorize to be
incurred by the board.
An entirely new taxing body could, with the consent of the voters, be created by the legis-
lature, having jurisdiction over all or part of Cook County. That body, if properly constituted,
could be invested with power to levy such taxes as might be deemed advisable, and with power
to issue bonds up to the constitutional limit of five per cent of the assessed valuation. It is also
to be borne in mind that by some slight changes in the method of fixing the assessed valuation
of property, which is now arbitrarily defined as one-fifth of the full valuation, the legislature could
largely increase the borrowing power of all the taxing bodies.
Large improvements need not only extensive borrowing powers, but the distribution of the
burden over a long series of years. While twenty years has been heretofore deemed the limit
of time which ought to be allowed for pa)dng any debt incurred by the issue of bonds, it may be
thought that the radical changes contemplated by the Plan of Chicago are of such unusual mag-
nitude and of such permanent character that justice might demand distribution of the burden
over more than one generation. Upon that view, bonds running for a longer period might be
thought reasonable. The present constitutional limit of twenty years is, however, absolute, and
an amendment to the constitution would be required to enable any municipality to issue bonds
for a longer tenn.
* House Bill No. 293, niinois, 1909, abeadjr mentioned, would, if enacted into a law, give the city power to issue bonds for
its share of the cost of the north and west connecting boulevards, or for a beginning on the Civic Center. The other necessities of
the dty would, however, exhaust most of the increased bonding power provided by this bill.
154 PLAN OF CHICAGO
CONCLUSIONS
From the foregoing examination of the legal aspects of the Plan of Chicago it appears
First: That without any additional legislation many of the recommendations of the Plan
can be adopted and practical steps be taken to carry them into effect ;
Second : That the legislature has ample power to grant either to the city or to other govem-
mental agencies such additional authority as may be necessary to carry out all of the recommen-
dations of the Plan as fully and as rapidly as may be f oimd wise ; and
Third : That additional authority, and especially a substantial increase in the local bonding
power, is essential to the efifective accomplishment of the most important of these reconunendations.
It remains for the people of Chicago, through their legally constituted representatives, to
decide upon the wisdom of the suggestions and to adopt them in the order of their relative im-
portance and availability. The necessary funds can no doubt be secured as rapidly as it can be
clearly shown that their expenditure will result in real advantage to the individual citizens who
constitute "the public,'' and upon whom rests, directly or indirectly, the burden of expense. In
the last analysis it must be clear that a community which makes wise expenditure for public works
not only imposes no real burden upon private property, but increases the value of all private prop-
erty within its limits. Such a conununity should be given adequate authority to levy taxes and
incur debt, subject always to such intelligent supervision of expenditures as wiU eflfectively guard
against extravagance and waste. Certainly, any limitations upon a progressive mimicipality
should be broad enough to make it possible to undertake such public enterprises as are recom-
mended in this Plan.
Fortunately, this is entirely possible in Chicago within the constitutional limitations upon
mimicipal indebtedness. By consolidating the local authorities within the dty of Chicago under
the provisions of the so-caDed charter amendment to the state constitution (Article IV, Sec. 34),
the present bonding capacity of the city can be multiplied five times, less the aggregate indebted-
ness of the consolidating bodies, and subject to such limitations as may be imposed in the con-
solidating act. By merely changing the statutory method of fixing the assessed value of property,
the present bonding power will be proportionately increased. By utilizing the county for
making such improvements as it may well be authorized to make, we can secure additional
bonding capacity even greater than that available through the agency of the city. There would
seem to be no valid objection to an act authorizing any coimty which chose to adopt its pro-
visions by popular vote to acquire, construct, and maintain parks and boulevards, with all the
powers (including those of eminent domain) already reconunended as to cities and park or forest-
preserve districts, and with appropriate increase of taxing and of bonding powers subject to pop-
ular approval. For many, if not all, of the purposes now sought imder the Forest-Preserve Act,
the county of Cook would seem to be the appropriate and available agency. It would be a
distinct public gain to enlarge its functions so that membership on its board of commissioners
would both demand and permit the highest type of public service. If the Forest-Preserve Act,
or an act of this general character, is constitutional, the agency thereby provided is also available
for many of the purposes of the Plan, and could be given additional bonding power subject only
to the constitutional limitation. It will thus be seen that ample bonding power for all the
LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE PLAN 155
purposes of the Plan can be conferred by the legislature. Significant precedents are not lack-
ing to justify the expectation that private generosity will co-operate in the accomplishment of
some of the reconunendations here made for the practical and effective promotion of the public
welfare. Some of the conspicuous benefactions of this general nature, already made by public
spirited citizens of Chicago, have been mentioned earlier in this volume,* and the movement for
small parks and playgrounds has already received very substantial assistance from the generosity
of private individuals. To other individuals other features, such as outer parks or the improve-
ment of tenement conditions, may make an equal or greater appeal.
Some increase in the bonding power of the city is, however, essential to the effective accom-
plishment of certain park and street improvements which the city itself should inmiediately imder-
take. The two great connecting links — that between the North and South Divisions at Michigan
Avenue, and that between the West and South Divisions by means of Twelfth Street — might
weD proceed inmiediately; and yet to raise the entire cost of these improvements by special as-
sessment, spread over a wide area, would be to arouse vigorous opposition both in and out of the
courts. This contest should, if possible, be confined to the adjustment of damages and benefits
to the property directly affected and which abuts on or is in the immediate vicinity of the im-
provements. Property which is clearly benefited in a special and peculiar manner should be as-
sessed its fair share — and only its fair share — of the cost of these improvements, and the
remaining cost should be borne by the city at large as a public benefit. The present machinery
of the special assessment law is adequate for aU these purposes. What is needed is sufl&cient
bonding power to enable the city to issue bonds for the portion of the cost assessed as "public
benefits."
The power to condemn or otherwise acquire easements, and to acquire and thereafter sell
the fee simple title to property in the inmiediate vicinity of public parks and boulevards, subject
to such easements as may enhance and protect the public use, would be of great advantage in
the practical accomplishment of many improvements, and might aid in overcoming serious finan-
cial obstacles. The available space will, however, not permit the discussion of the particular
instances to which this suggestion especially applies.
It remains only to consider the ofl&cial agencies which are most desirable and most available
for the effective working out of the Plan. As a matter of theory, the best results could be achieved
through a consolidation of the city and coimty governments, or by placing the entire metropolitan
district, which constitutes the real city of Chicago, under a imified municipal administration,
endowed with broad powers of local self-government, including the power to levy taxes and incur
indebtedness. Practically, however, the enlargement of the powers of these two governing bodies
— the city and the coimty — within the limits permitted by the present constitution, is probably
the most available method of attaining desirable results. As a means of co-ordinating the two it
is respectfully suggested that a permanent Commission on City and Coimty Plan should be created
by joint resolution or ordinance of the city council and the coimty board. This conmiission
should contain appropriate representation for each body, and it shoiUd be charged with the duty
of reporting to each its recommendations as to all matters falling within the general scope of a
city and county Plan. It might well be ordained by the city council that no public buildings should
be hereafter located or erected, and that no parks should be acquired and no streets or boulevards
be opened, without a report from the commission or the city members thereof. The commission
» See Chapter VUL
156 PLAN OF CHICAGO
might be composed entirely of city and county officials, or might contain some representation of
those who are not public officials but who are particularly interested in and particularly qualified
for its work. The city board of local improvements and the present park boards or any future
consolidated park board should be directly represented.
Whether the fimctions of the Commissions on Municipal Art and Small Parks should in the
interest of simplification and efficiency be transferred to such a Commission on City and County
Plan might be profitably considered. While such an advisory commission would be entirely
extra-legal, it would be of distinct service in securing the harmonious development of a single
comprehensive Plan for the city of Chicago and its environs.
J
INDEX
I
m
i
■
t
t
I
INDEX
Advertising, regulation of, 127, 131, 132, 140.
Algonquin, 40.
Alvord, John W., his paper on good roads, 39 (note); his
report on Chicago pavements, 83.
Amencan dties, centers of industry and traffic, 4.
Annapolis, Md., laid out on lines similar to those proposed
by Wren for London, 29.
Ancient civilization, decay of, 13.
Antwerp, 100; the influence of the Reubens collection on,
116; treatment of the river banks in, 116.
Apartment houses, 33, 34.
Arc de Triomphe de FEtoile, Paris, begun by Napoleon I,
finished by Louis Phillippe, 17.
Arc du Carrousel, Paris, 17.
Architects, present plans for World's Columbian Exposition,
6, (note) ; should work together in street building, 86.
Architectural Record, quoted, 18.
Armour Institute of Technology, 120.
Arnold, Bion J., estimates increase in the population of
Chicago, S3-
Art, a source of wealth and moral influence, 116.
Art Institute, the Lake Front improvements presented at,
6; students at, 109; new building for, 114; cost of, 120, 121.
Art Schools, 34.
Ashland Avenue, 117.
Atlantic Monthly Magazine, quoted, 19.
Athens, works of Pericles in, 11 ; characteristics of architec-
ture in, 11; the Acropolis, 117.
Athletic Field, proposed location on the lake front, 1 16.
Aurora, 40.
Austria, finds new strength in union with Hungary, 19.
Automobiles, damage to roads by, 39; promote suburban
life; 42, 46.
Avenue, the, character of, 82; division of traflic on, 84; use
of the elipse in, 90.
B
Babylon, the greatest commercial city of ancient times, 10;
description of, 10.
Baltic, the, yachtmen of, 52.
Baltimore, improvements in, 28.
Baguio, summer capital of the Philippines, plan for, 29.
Batavia, 40.
Baths, in Rome, acconunodations of, 13.
Baumeister, German dty-builder, 21, (note).
Baxter, Sylvester, secretary of Metropolitan Improvement
Commission, Boston, 20.
Beauty, Greek passion for, 11, commercial advantages of,
no. ^
Berlin, rapid growth of, i; physical conditions in, 14; parks
of, 49, 80; building restrictions in, 107.
Bill-boards, 41, 131, 140.
Blue Island, 40, 41.
Board of Local Improvements, powers of, 133.
Boating faciUties, need of incresised, 115.
Bois de Boulogne, 48.
Bois de Vincennes, 48.
Bond issues for improvements, 151.
Boston, defenses of, 9; cost of park system, 27; metropolitan
sewage and park commissions, 38; extension of streets,
38; extent of park system, 49; apartment houses in, 88;
improvements in Back Bay district, 108, 1 10.
Boulevard, character of, 82.
Boulevards of Chicago, 84, 93, 120.
British Museum, no.
Brown, Glenn, Secretary American Institute of Architects,
21, (note).
Brussels, boulevards in, 20, 90.
Budapest, commercial progress of, 19; treatment of the
Danube in, 116.
Buildings, regulation of the height of, 141.
Building-lines, 127.
Bumham, Daniel H., 6 (note) ; plan for San Francisco, 280.
Bums, John, town-planning scheme of, 22, 128.
Bushy Park, London, 48.
Chicago, rapid growth of population, i ; realizes that a dty
plan is necessary, i ; the plan presented the result of exper-
ience, 2 ; justification of the plan, 4; legal aspects of plan,
127-156; Chicago a center of industry and traffic, 4;
future greatness, 4; public spirit, 4; understands the nec-
cessity of experts, 4; results of the World's Fair, 6; plans
for improvement of the Lake front, 6; Merchants Club
begins plan, 7; prosperity the result of comprehensive
plan, 8; the Spirit of Chicago, 8; a typical example of a
palisaded town, 9; surroundings similar to those of Paris,
London and Berlin, 14; opportunity for systematic im-
provement, 15; population greater than that of Paris
when Haussmann*s work began, 18; nature of the Chicago
problem, 30; the metropous of the Middle West, 31;
extent of dt/s influence, 32, 34; probable growth, 32,
33; size of the dty not the first consideration, 32; lack
of foresight after the fire of 1871, 32; B. J. Arnold's
estimates of growth of population, 33; James J. Hill's
prophecy as to growth, 33; circulation of Chicago news-
papers, 33; bank reserves, 33; commerdal influence, 34;
political headquarters, 34; responsibilities of the dty, 34;
Commission to lay out territory adjoining the dty, 34;
provision should be made for public builmngs and play-
grounds, 35 ; churches, 36; suburbs, 36; need of highways
into surrounding countrv, 38; building of good roads, 39;
highways surroimding the dty, 40, 41 ; streets of Chicago,
43; beginnings of park system, 43; park area second to
that of Philadelphia, 44; park extension begins, 44; small
parks, 44, 54 ; proposed arrangement of new parks, 44 ; park
area relative to population, 44; park circuits, 45; recom-
mendations of Spedal Park Commission, 46; develop-
ment of suburban railway service, 46; need for outlying
parks, 47; compared with London, 48; opportunities for
large parks, 50; development of Lake front, 50; yachting,
52; Chicago made largely by the railroads, 61; problem
of freight traffic, 61 ; necessity ior revlang transporta^on
f adlities, 62 ; only goods to be consumed m cit>f ^ou\d
159
i6o
INDEX
Chicago ^ CofUinued.
enter therein, 63; a traffic clearing house proposed, 64;
railway and water traffic compared, 64; reuef from con-
gestion of traffic, 65; harbors, 65; tunnel system, 65; a
loop system, 66; excursion piers, 68; circuits for freight
and passenger traffic, 68; passenger stations, 70, 71 ; loca-
tions of passenger stations, 72, 112 ; street-car loop system,
73; extension of business area, 74; suburban passenger
traffic, 74; mail service, 76; ideal nature oi proposed
transportation system, 78; nattiral features of Chicago,
79; how effective results may be obtained, 80; needs of
the growing dty, 80; actequate circulation and sufficient
park area essential, 80; cost of postponing imiHX>vements
in circulation system, 81; report on street paving, 83;
existing diagonals, 84; locationof thedty, 89; advantages
of rectilinear street S3rstem, 89; drcidar avenues, 90;
necessity for platting outlying district, 91; preserving
width of existing avenues, 92; circuit arteries suggested,
92; avenues paralleling railways, 94; diversion oftraffic
from the business center, 95; proposed circuits, 95-96;
encroachments on the river, 97; treatment of river banks,
97, 112; widening of streets, 97; requisites for area outside
the business center, 98; the heart of Chicago, 99; spread
of population, 99; disposition of traffic within the business
center, 99; Michigan Avenue the base-line of the dty,
100; width of streets, 100; bridge at Michigan Avenue,
105; expenditures for permanent improvements, 107; the
improvement of Halsted Street, 107; slums of the dty, 108;
Berlin an example for housing conditions, 109; oppor-
tunity for comfMrehensive treatment of the central portion
of the dty, no; development of Grant Park, no; economy
and effectiveness of group-plan for Grant Park, in; a
yacht harbor, in; gifts bydtizens should be encouraged,
112; Congress Street as the grand axis, 113; reasons for
choice of Congress Street for grand axis, 113, 114; the
dvic center, 115; buildings composing dvic center, 115,
116; dome of dvic center, 116, 118; Federal group of
buildings, 117; increase in real estate values, 119; raising
street levels, 120; creation of the park system, 120; puri-
fication of Lake Michigan, 120; cost of World's Fair, 120;
cultivation of the fine arts, 120; influence of the universities,
120; taxing powers, 153.
City-i^nning, begins in Paris, 13; in Europe, 19; French and
German theones, 20.
Civic Center of Chicago, buildings comprising, 115; location
oi, 115; architecture of, 117; dome of, 118; cost of, 123;
power of park conunissioners to acquire land for, 134.
Civu Law, unifying force of, 31.
Cleanliness, a necessity for die dty, 82.
Cleveland, Ohio, group plan for, 27, cost of imiHX>vements
in, 27.
Club houses for the people, 44.
Colbert, one of the Paris planners, 15, 20.
Commerce, governing motive in location of dties, 9 ; beginning
of in Europe, 13; expansion of, 19; makes art creations
possible, 22.
Commercial Club, undertakes plan of Chicago, i; designs
for Lake Front improvement presented to, 6; consolidates
with Merchants' Club, 7; carries on work for plan of
Chicago, 7; meetings of, 7; discussion of good roads, 39
(note).
Condemnation, limitations on the right of, 128; congested
areas, power to open, 151.
Congress of the Confederation, 31.
Congress Street, should be developed as central axis of dty,
113; width of, 114; its relation to Grant Park, 115.
Cook County, creates outer belt Commission, 44; County
building part of the dvic center group, 116; attempt to
organize a forest -preserve district, 132; limited powers of,
134; taxation in, 152.
Courtiand, 40.
Courts, building for, 116.
Crerar, John, endows Crerar Library, 109.
Crerar Library, 108, 114, 120.
Crown Point, 40.
Calumet Feeder, 55.
Calument River, importance of harbor, 57.
Canal Street, location of railway stations on, 107; widening
of, 1131
Cathedral, the, embodied the highest expression of dvic art,
13-
Cedar Lake, 40.
Cemeteries, Roman, 12; characteristics of modem, 36.
Century Magazine^ quoted, 21, (note.)
Charles River, Mass., improvement of, 49.
Charleston, 9.
Chicago Avenue, traffic on, 116, 117;
Chicago Heights, 40.
Chicago Ridge, 41.
Chicago River, forests along, 56; improvement of, 97; treat-
ment of the banks, 116.
Chicago University, 51, 120, 121.
China, opening of, 33.
Christianity, unifying force of, 31.
Churches, usually not architecturally important, 36.
City, the, formless growth of neither economical nor satis-
factory, I ; overcrowding and congestion of traffic paralyzes
vital functions of, i ; complicated problems of not beyond
control of pubic sentiment, i ; efforts to bring about best
conditions of life in, i ; parks the lungs of, 12; strain of
life in, 32; opportunities for the ambitious, 33; needs
adequate drculation and suffident park area, 80; needs
created by increase in population, 81 ; reasons for growth
of population, 81 ; general character of, 82. 87.
D
Danube, the, no, 116.
Darmstadt. 20.
Defense, governing motive in location of dties, 9.
De Kalb, 40, 47.
Department of State, fadlitates work on plan of Chicago, 7.
Des Plaines River, scenery along, 40; beauty of, 55, 90,91.
Der SkuUeban, magazine, 21, (note).
Dewey, Stoddard, on foreign money spent in Paris, 19.
Dii^onals necessity for, 84; function of, 91; those proposed
K>r Chicago, 92.
Diodorus, his description of Babylon, 10.
District of Columbia, L'Enfant plan extended over the
entire District, 25 ; plan of, 91. (See also Washington, D. C.)
Douglas Park, 44.
Drainage Canal, 55; cost of, 120.
Dresden, 20, no, 116.
Driveways, extent of proposed, 58.
Dundee, 40.
Du Page County, 55.
Du Page River, 40.
E
Eagle Lake, 40.
Education, unifying force of in the Northwest, 32.
Edwards, Percy J., his history of London street improvements,
21, (note).
INDEX
i6i
Egypt, defended by deserts, lo; pyramids and temples of, lo.
Electric railways bind outlying towns to central dty, 42;
promote neighborliness, 43.
Elgin, 40.
Eliot, President, Charles W., quoted, 123.
Ellis Park, 43.
Elmhurst, 40.
Eminent domain, exerdse of power of, 139, 140, 141, 142;
right to take more than necessary lands, 144, 151.
Englfmd, beginning of national life in, 13; growth of com-
merce, 19; housing schemes, 21, 128; town planning, 21,
22, 34; holds Northwestern posts after the Revolution, 31 ;
roads, 39; regulation of advertising, 127.
Epping Forest, 48.
Evanston, 40, 50.
Evergreen Park, 56.
Euphrates River, tunnel under, 10.
Europe, national life begins in, 13; changes in cities, 19, 22.
Federal Building in Chicago, 117.
Ferguson Monument Func^ 121.
Field, Marshall, gives Field Museum of Natural History to
Chicago, 108.
Field Museum, the importance of, 108, 114; new building
for, 114; location of, 121.
Fischer, Prof, Theodore, German city-builder, 21, (note).
Flag Creek, 55.
Florence, beauty and power of, 13, 20.
Folleston, 40.
Fontainebleau, Forest of, 48.
Foreign peoples in Chicago, i.
Forest parks, 53, 131, 136.
Fort Dearborn, 115.
Fortifications, in relation to dties, 9; changed into boulevards,
90.
Fountains, location of, 86.
Fox River, 40.
France, beginning of national life in, 13; leads the world in
art and taste, 19; improvement of cities, 19; roads, 39.
Franco-Prussian war, improvements in European cities since,
19.
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 20.
Franklin, Benjamin, his connection with the Northwest, 31.
Ganges River, 10.
Garfield Park, 44.
Gary, 40, 58.
Geneva, 40.
Genoa, 40.
German dty improvements, nature of, 20; modification of
French system, 20; aim of to produce variety and interest,
ao; in Frankfort-on-the-Main, 20; advertising regulations,
127.
Germany, beginning of National Life in, 13.
Germany, effect of peace on, 19; magnitude of the dty-plan-
ning movement in, ai (note); municipal expositions, 21,
(note).
Gibbs Woods, 54.
Gifts by pubUc-spirited dtizens, advantage of to a dty, no,
116.
Glencoe, entrance to park system at, 54, 55.
Glenview Golf Club, 55.
Good Roads, economic effects of, 42. (See also highways.)
Governor of Illinois inspects work on plan of Chicago, 7.
Government, enlarged participation of people in, i.
Grade crossings of railroads, 71.
Grant Park, improvement of, 6, 44, 52; proposed treatment
of, 108; grouping of buildings in, 109, 114, 115; intellec-
tual center of Chicago, 116.
Grant, Gen. U. S., embodiment of the spirit of the Middle
West, 32.
Great Lakes, 32.
Griffith, 40.
Gurlitt, Cornelius, as to German dty-planning, 20, 21.
H
Hainault Forest, London, 48.
Hall of Records, 116.
Halstead Street, longest business street in the world, 106.
treatment of, 106; known as the king of streets, 106; 117.
Hamburg, 20.
Hammond, 40.
Hampton Court, England, 48.
Harbors, in Chicago, 65, 68.
Harlem, 55.
Hartford, improvement of, 29.
Harvard Medical School, location of, 115.
Harvey, 40.
Haussmann, George Eugene, becomes prefect of the Seine,
17; his place as a dty builder, 18; builds on the founda-
tions laid by Louis XIV., 18; character of his work, 18;
' cost of his improvements, 19; imitation of, 19.
Heart of Chicago, the, 99, no (see also Business Center).
Henley, regattas at, 48.
Highways, necessity for adequate, 38; conunerdal advan-
tages of, 38; along railways, 41, 94; drainage of, 41;
proposed system of , 121; cost of creating, 121 (see also
Roads).
Hill, James J., predicts future population of Chicago, 33;
on improvement of railway terminals, 62.
Hinsdale, 40.
Hobart, 40.
Holidays, necessity of caring for crowds on, 88.
Housing conditions in England, 21; in Chicago, 113, 141.
Hudson Palisades, improvement of, 38.
Humboldt Park, 44.
Hungary, 19.
Hunt, Richard M., presents plan for Administration building
at World's Fair, 6 (note).
Illinois, good roads in, 39; park legislation, 44, 127; tendency
toward dty life in, 47; constitutional limitations on im-
provements, 128.
Illinois Central Railway, 52.
India, 10.
Indian country of North America, settlement of, 9.
Indiana, cooperation of, 130.
Indians in the Northwest, 31.
Irrigation of western lands, 33.
Italy, 13, 19.
J
Jackson Park, site of World's Columbian Exposition, 6;
44,53-
ti
I
1 62
INDEX
Japan, opening of, ss-
Jay, John, pertinacity of on behalf of the Northwest, 31.
Jefferson Park, 43.
Jefferson, Thomas, aids L'Enfant in planning Washington,
23» 25.
{oliet, 40.
ohnson, A. N., Illinois State Highway Commissioner, as
to good roads, 39 (note).
Juniper, suitable for lake-shore planting, 38.
Kankakee, 40.
Kankakee River, 40.
Kansas City, improvement of, 29.
Kenil worth, 130
Kenosha, 39, 40, 47.
Kew Gardens, /fi.
La Crosse, 40.
Lagoons, along Lake Front, 52.
Lake Calumet, 55 ; park reservations near, 57.
Lake Forest University, 120.
Lake Front, improvement of suggested by World's Columbian
Exposition, 6; testimony as to advantages of to Chicago,
6; progress of plan for, 6; favored by press, 7; of right
belongs to the people, 50; to be made from dty waste,
50, 122; improvement of, 122; legislation for improve-
ments, 137, 138.
Lake Michigan, driveway along shore of, 38; beauty of, 50;
boating on, 51 ; treatment of shores, 53.
Lake Zurich, 40, 60.
Lanciani, L., his description of andent Rome, 13.
La Porte, 40.
La Salle Street, improvement of, 107, 113.
L'Enfant, Peter Charles, makes plan of Washington, 23, 49, 91.
Le N6tre, plans of for Paris, 15.
Libertyville, 40.
Lincoln Park, 43, 44, 135, 136.
Lincoln, Abraham, embodiment of the spirit of the Middle
West, 34; Saint-Gaudens' statue of, 112.
Little Calumet River, 55.
London, physical conditons in, 14; street changes, 20; cost
of delaying improvements in, 21; opportunities offered
by the Great Fire of 1666, 21; Sir Christopher Wren's
plan of, 21; cost of recent improvements in, 21; cost of
proposed new thoroughfares, 21; suburbs, 34; police
jurisdiction, 37; rehousing of working people, 37, 107, 128:
recreation grounds, 48; monuments, 80; housing con-
ditions, 113; treatment of Thames, 116; influence of
National Gallery and British Museum, 1 16.
London Traffic Commission, plan for diminishing congestion,
21.
Louisburg, Cape Breton, a fortified city, 9.
Louis XIV., of France, plan of Paris, 14; his plan a model
in Europe, 19; 22, 87, 91.
Louis Phillippe, finished Arc de Triomphe, 17.
Los Angeles, Cal., expenditure for roads, 39 (note).
Lutetia, original name of Paris, 14.
M
Mackinac, defenses of, 9.
Mail service of Chicago, 76.
Manhattan, 40.
Manilla, improvement of, 29
Manufacturers, buildings for, 86.
Marengo, 40.
Massachusetts, good roads in, 39 (note); metropolitan park
commission, 131.
Maysville, 40.
McHenry, 40.
Media, 10.
Merchants' Club, Lake Front Improvements presented to,
7; arranges for complete plan of Chicago, 7; consoli-
dates with Commercial Club, 7.
Metropolitan Art Museum, New York, 115.
Michigan Avenue, the base line of Chicago, 100; traffic on,
100; proposed improvement of, 100; grades of, 102;
elevation of, 103; necessity for open spaces, 115, 117; the
dty has power to improve, 136.
Michigan City, 40, 47.
Middle Ages, conditions prevailing among European dties.
Middle West, limits of, 31 ; Chicago the metropolis of, 31 ;
its distinct history, 31; extent of, 32; navigable waters
off 32 ; phenomenal growth of, 32 ; meaning of term, 33.
Milan, 20, 90.
Miller, John S., on maintenance and repair of Chicago
streets, S^.
Millington, 40.
Milwaukee, 38.
Minneapolis, improvement of, 28.
Mississippi Valley, development of, ^^.
Mobile, 9.
Momence, 40.
Monee, 40.
Morgan, J. Pierpont, president of the American Scenic and
Historic Preservation Sodety, gift of, 38 (note).
Morris, 40.
Mt. Forest, 55.
Music in Chicago, 34, 120.
N
Nantasket Beach, Boston, bathing at, 38.
Napierville, good roads in, 39.
Napoleon Bonaparte, his belief in and work for Paris, 15,
17; suggests improvements for London, 21.
Napoleon III., transformation of Paris under, 17.
Natural forces applied to industry, effects of, 19.
Natural scenery, desirability of for dty workers, 53.
Newberry Library, 120.
New Orleans, 9.
New York, rapid growth of, i; defenses of, 9; dvic imwove-
ment in, 27; railway congestion at, 62; Riverside Drive,
116; Metropolitan Museum of Art, 109, 116; sudden
expansion of, and waste of money in, 153.
Newspapers of Chicago, 34.
Nile, the, 10.
Niles, 40.
Noises, 74.
North Western University, 51, 120.
Norton, Prof. Charles Eliot, his characterization of Venice, 13.
Nuisances, 141.
o
O'Day, Edward, editor of plan for San Frandsco, 28 (note).
Ohio River, 32.
O'Meara, Dr. Barry E., his talks with Napoleon, 21.
Ordinance of 1787, 31.
Orient, rapid growth of cities in the, i.
Outer belt of parks, scheme for, 7; Commission for, 41, 52,
121; cost of, 123; legislation 'or, 130,133.
INDEX
163
Pacific Coast, commercial development of, ^^.
Palisades of the Hudson, commission for, 38.
Pallisades of the Potomac, 49.
Palos, 56.
Panama Canal, influence of on growth of Chicago, 33.
Parks, economic effects of 51 ; diaracter of, 54.
Paris, first modem city, 14; has reached the highest state of
dvic development, 14; origin of, 14; growth the result
of commerce, 14; plans of Louis XIV., 14; new portions
of laid out in vacant places, 14; 23; congestion of popu-
lation, 15; grows according to a well-considered plan, 15;
improvements of Napoleon I., 15 ; a center of commerce,
17; first sidewalks in, 17; theauays,i7; commemorative
monuments 17; plans of Napoleon III., 17; transforma-
tions wrought by Haussmann, 17; grouping of railway
stations, 18; compared with Chicago, 18; cost of Hauss-
mann's improvements, 19; dvic pride, 19; amount of
foreign money spent in, 19; Wren antidpates features of
Paris plan, 21, 54; parks, 48, 54, 87, 90, 91, 94, 108;
treatment of Seine, 116; influence of the Louvre, 116;
commerical advanages of improvements, 124; condemna-
tion of land in, 128.
Paving, report of Conunerdal Club Committee on street
paving m Chicago, 83.
Peace, results of in Europe since 1872, 19.
Pennsylvania Railroad, improvement of station bmldings,
77-
People, increased partidpation of in government, i; deter-
mination to secure better conditions of life, 2.
Perides, character of his work, 11.
Perkins, Dwight Heald, compiles report of the Spedal Park
Commission, 44.
Persia, 10,
Peterson Woods, 54.
Philadelphia, improvements in, 28; park system, 44.
Philippine Islands, plans for summer capital in, 29.
Pittsburg, railway congestion at, 62.
Place de la Concorde, Paris, 15.
Place de I'Etoile, Paris, 15.
Place Vendome, Paris, 15, 87.
Plainfield, 40.
Plan of the City, necessity for, i ; impossibility of perfection
in, 2; real test of is in its application, 2; not an expense
but a measure of economy, 4; insures orderly growth, 4.
Planting, for Lake Shore drive, 38; winter effects should be
studied, 78.
Play grounds, need of, 35, 45, on Lake Front, 51.
Pleasant Prairie, 40.
Plutarch, his description of the works of Pericles, 11.
Poles, disfigurement of streets by, 84.
Police Headquarters, part of the dvic center group, 116.
Police power, extent of, 128, 140.
Population, density of in Chicago, 48, 115.
Post-office, 68, 76; new building for, 117.
Potomac Park, Washington, 49.
Potomac, treatment of banks of, no.
President's House, (White House) the, 23.
Providence, R. I., improvement of, 28.
Public Health Department, 116.
Public Libraries, 35. / ' *
Public Library, possible location for in Grant Park, wif.- -
Public Schools, 35.
Public service plans for heating, lighting and power, 76.
Public Works, department of, 115.
Pullman^ 58.
Pjrramids of Gizeh, 10.
Quebec, a fortified dty, 9.
Q
R
Railway stations, treatment of, 36, 42; in Europe, 70;
embellishment of, 77; grouping of on Canal and TweUith
Streets, no, 116.
Railways, dependence of Chicago on, 61 ; congestion of traffic,
62; necessity for improved terminals, 62; necessity of
combination among to secure Chicago terminals, 62, 121;
electrification of, 106; cost of scheme for terminals, 122
(see also Transportation).
Real Estate Board of Chicago, report of on Michigan Avenue,
lOI.
Recreation piers, 68, 115.
Residence streets, 8|, 91 i '
Revere Beach, bathing at, 38, 49.
Richmond Park, near London, 48.
Ringstrasse, the, Vienna, 20.
River Forest, 55.
Riverside, 40, 55.
Riverside Drive, New York, no.
Rivers, transformation of banks of, 116.
Riviera, the, 51.
Roads, John Alvord's paper on, 39 (note); in Buena Park,
39; from Verswlles to Chartier, 39; English and French
roads, 39; value of good roads to the community, 39;
in Los Angeles, 39; in Illinois, 39; an adjunct of Chicago
life, 40.
Roanoke, Va., improvement of, 29.
Robey, 41.
Rogers Park, 130.
Roman Law, unifying force of, 13.
Rome, growth of, i ; possessed elements that characterize the
modem dty, 11; parks and gardens of, 12; rejuvenation
of, 13; baths, 13; the Forum, 13, 117,20; suburbs, 34;
aqueducts, 72; railway stations, 87.
Royal British Institute of Architects, 21 (note).
Rouen, 90.
Rue de la Paix, Paris, 15.
Rue de Rivoli, Paris, opened by Napoleon, 15
Sag Valley, 56.
Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, opinion of architect's meeting
for the World's Fair, 6 (note); statue of Lincoln, 112.
Salt Creek, 55.
Sandwich, 40.
San Frandsco, comprehensive plan for, 28.
Scheldt, the, no.
Schools, location of on highways, 39; 98.
Seattle, improvement of, 29.
Seine, the, 51, no.
Senate Park Commission, the, (Daniel H. Bumham, Charles
FoUin McKim, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Frederick Law
Olmstead, Jr.) makes plan for park system of the District
of Columbia, 25 ; opposition to plan of, 25 ; members of
the commission also planners of World's Columbian Expo-
sition, 25.
Semiramis, queen of Babylon, the first dty buUder, 10.
Shaw, Albert, as to cost of delays in London planning, 21.
Shade, advantages of in dty, 84.
Shelby, 40.
Sherman Farm, 56.
Sheridan Road, 39 (note), 57.
164
INDEX
Sidewalks, first in Paris built by Napoleon I., 17.
Sienna, beauty and power of, 13.
Sistine Madonna, 112.
Slavery excluded from the North West territory, 31.
Slums of Chicago, 106, 129.
Smith, Edward R., on the transformation of Paris, 18.
Smoke, 71, 77, 112.
Sorbonne, the, Paris, 114.
South Chicago, 51, 52, 53.
South Park Conunissioners suggest improvement of Lake
Front, 6; meeting of on Lake Front improvements, 6;
arrangement for Grant park, 114; 134.
South Parks, expansion of, 7, 44.
Special Park Commission, plan of Metropolitan Park system,
7, 44; report of, 46.
Spirit of Chicago, the, 8.
Sport Park at Stockholm, 52.
Spring Forest, 55.
Square of the Innocents, Paris, transformation of, 93.
St. Charles, 40.
St. Louis, plan for improvement of, 28.
St. Paul's Cathedral, London, 21.
St. Paul, Minn., improvement of, 28.
St. Peter's Cathredral, Rome, 116.
Statues, location of, 86.
St^bben, German dty-builder, 21 (note).
Stockholm, yachting at, 52.
Stony Creek, 55.
Street plan of Chicago, cost of, 123.
Streets, the desirable width of, 83; regulation of traffic on, 88.
Submerged lands granted for park purposes, 44.
Suburban highways, commission for, 39.
Suburbs, apt to be ugly and squalid, 35; when attractive,
34; connections among, 38; residents of concerned with
dty communication, 41 ; railway stations in, 77.
Sununit, 55.
Sweden, jrachting of, 52.
Swimming, exhibition of at Stockhom, 52.
Sycamore, 40.
T
Taxation, limitations on power of, 129, 151.
Terminal railway passenger stations in Chicago, 68.
Territory Northwest of the Ohio River, conquered by Vir-
ginia troops, 31 ; retained as first territorial acquisition,
31; diplomacy, 31; endowed with freedom and popular
education, 31.
Thames, the, London, the embankment a part of Wren's
plan, 21 (note); use of the river on Sunday, 48, 51;
treatment of the banks, no.
Thatchers Park, 55.
Thoroughfares, improvement of, 37.
Tigris River, 10.
Town-planning in England, 21, 34, 128.
Townsnips, powers of in suburban development, 130.
Trajan's Forum in Rome, cost of, 13.
Transportation system for Chicago, suggested, 61-76; legisla-
tion necessary for, 139.
Treaty of 1783, secures the Northwest, 31.
Trees along streets, 84.
Tuileries, gardens of the, 15.
Twelfth Street, widening of, no, 116, 117.
u
Union Park, 43.
United States, consuls furnish reports on civic improvements,
7; offices in Chicago, 117, constitutional limitations on
diy planning, 127.
Valparaiso, 40.
Venice, a commerdal dty, 13; canab of, 15; St. Mark's
Square, 117.
Vernon Park, 43.
Versailles, 39; fountains, 49.
Vicksburg, 9.
Vienna as a center of activity, 19; follows example of Paris
in planning, 20; parks, 49, 80, 90; boulevards, 94;
treatment of the Danube, 116.
Virginia troops conquer the Northwest, 31.
w
Walled towns, 9.
Washington, D. C, planned as National Capital, 22; L'En-
fant's plan, 23; aty regarded as a unit, 23 ; comprehensive
character of the original plan, 23; plan ridiculed, 23;
effect of Civil War on the dty, 23; extension of L'Enfont^s
plan, 23; jAaxi of the Senate Park Commission, 23;
Union Station, 71, 87; appartment houses, 88; ownership
of front yards, 92; Potomac Quay, 116; influence of
Library of Congress, 112.
Washington, George, directs L'Enfant in planning the Federal
City, 23-25.
Washington Park, 44.
Washington Square, 43.
Waterhouse, Paul, observations on London improvements,
21 (note).
Waukegan, 38, 40.
Wealth, rapid increase of in modem times, i, 19.
Wellsboro, 40.
West Park Commissioners, project for improvement of Lake
Front presented to, 6, 134.
Wheaton, connected with Chicago by good road, 39.
White House, the, 29.
Williamsburg, Va., suggests features of plan of Washington,
29.
Wiknette, 38, 53, 130.
Wilmington, 40.
Wlmot, 40.
Windsor Great Park, 48.
Winnetka, 40, 122, 130.
Winter Sports, 52.
^^sconsin, cooperation of, 130.
Women's Club, Lake Front Improvement presented to, 6;
Woodstock, 40.
World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, origin of plan of
Chicago traced to, 4; the beginning of orderly arrange-
ments of public buildings and grounds, 4; re^ts of, 6;
suggests improvements of Lake Front, 6; ^Hrit in which
conceived, 6; architects present plans for, 6 (note);
reasons for success of, 6; ^ect of on Washington plans,
25; impressiveness of Peristyle, 109; cost of, 120; indi-
cated appreciation of good order and munidpal beauty,
120.
Working classes, English schemes for housing, 21.
Wren, Sir Christopher, his plan of London antidpates certain
features of Paris designs, 21 ; plan of Annapolis, similar
to his plan of London, 29.
Yacht harbor, on lake front, 52, 109, 115.
Yachting on Lake Michigan, 52.
Zoological Park, Washington, 49.
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